sandbox

The “Sandbox” space makes available a number of resources that utilize and explore the data underlying "Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640" created by the Making and Knowing Project at Columbia University.

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Oral Culture in Ms. Fr. 640

Hana Ghoneima

Making and Knowing Project, Fall 2021

BnF Ms. Fr. 640 stands at the intersection of a pivotal moment in history, in which craftspeople who were previously illiterate began recording their procedures and trade in writing.1 Within this context, Ms. Fr. 640 is an illuminating document not only for its content on craft techniques, but for the historical milestones and trends it embodies. One of those is oral culture, and its intersection with the written one. Oral culture is defined as a form of communication in which knowledge is transmitted orally from one person to another. According to the historian Jan Vansina, within oral culture “there must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation.”2 Importantly, oral culture can be interpreted as “Any situation in which people speak generates messages, some of which may be repeated and hence start a process of transmission,” and it includes both the process of oral transmission itself as well as its products.3 Similarly, oral culture can also be thought of as “a reconstruction of the past from oral sources…which will throw light on the particular aspect of social life under study.”4 As such, oral culture is understood as the shared transmission of vernacular experience, and is an important tool for the study of historical eras in which masses were largely illiterate and access to written work limited.

Despite the seeming contrast between oral and written sources, there is significant scholarly interest in the importance of handwritten and printed knowledge within oral culture. In fact, oral culture cannot be evaluated independently of written tradition, and the intersection of the two sheds light on topics such as authenticity and representation. According to Susan Stewart, “when oral forms are transformed into ‘evidence’ and ‘artefacts,’ they acquire all the characteristics of fragmentation, symbolic meaning, and literariness that are most valued by the literary culture.”5 In this light, studying the written material of BnF Ms. Fr. 640 is an important tool for understanding the oral transmission of craft knowledge and production techniques passed over generations.

As such, the purpose of this project is to locate traces of oral culture that are dispersed throughout Ms. Fr. 640. For the purpose of this project, oral culture was defined as any instance in which the author-practitioner referenced or implied that the knowledge he is writing of has been acquired from another person or place via hearing or something that is said. An example of this is in fol. 36v: “One says that in Lorraine & in Flanders well-made glass is made of fern ashes & pebbles…” Distinct here is his specific reference to having acquired this knowledge through other people’s talk. This is in contrast to instances in which he cites books or references written knowledge, such as in fol. 162r, in which he explains information about the Phoenecians acquired from Herodotus’ Clio. Below, I will lay out the methodology and results of different approaches I took to evaluating this issue.

References to “Say” and “Said”

Using the search functionality of Oxygen XML Editor, I compiled lists of all the times the author-practitioner used the words “say,” “said,” “hear,” or “heard” throughout the English translation of the Ms. Fr. 640. Then, I manually went through each entry on the list and cross-referenced them with their locations in the manuscript to check for instances where the author-practitioner is specifically referencing knowledge that is said/heard by another person. For example, on fol. 21v, he writes that “Some say that one should remove…” and in fol. 43v he writes that “It is said that pulverized talc…” These instances show direct examples where the author-practitioner is writing down things that he heard from elsewhere, including facts, techniques, and opinions of others. With the word “say,” of the 103 total times the word was used, 32% (n=33) specifically reference something that another person said and that the author-practitioner is now recording (Fig. 1). The word “said” was used 198 times, of which 8.6% (n=17) specifically reference something which another person said (Fig. 2). However, there were no instances of this with the words “hear” and “heard.”

Chart

Fig 1. Percentage of entries using the word “say” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

Chart

Fig 2. Percentage of entries using the word “said” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

Orally Transmitted Knowledge Across Professions and Places

To investigate the presence of oral culture through a different lens, I went through the profession (“pro”) and place (“pl”) tags within Ms. Fr.

  1. These editorial tags are encoded within the digital manuscript to describe certain words, phrases, and features of the text.6 The “pro” tag denotes instances where the author-practitioner references another recognized trade, such as a painter, while the “pl” tag highlights specific places that are mentioned in the text, such as France. In my initial search within the manuscript, I found that there were several instances where the author-practitioner references things he has heard or is aware that another profession or people from another place do. For example, in fol. 29v, he says: “Apothecaries say that anything which does not adhere to …” denoting that he is writing down something which he heard from apothecaries, while in fol. 136v he explains that “Some say that German tokens are …” As such, using Oxygen, I compiled a list of all the “pro” and “pl” tags within the manuscript. This resulted in a list of 366 “pro” tags and 266 “pl” tags. I manually went through each tag and sorted the list of results according to whether the author was actually referencing the way something is done or just casually referring to a place/profession. For example, a ‘yes’ would be the author-practitioner’s description of how glass is made in France while a ‘no’ would be Venice turpentine, which is not actually referencing the place but is the given name of the material. Below are the initial graphs showing percentages of the number of tags actually referencing another place or profession in the context of how something is done versus tags that are not. Within the profession tag, 50.1% (n=183) specifically reference transmittable knowledge regarding the way another profession does something, while 49.9% (n=182) do not (Fig. 3). Within the place tag, 27.8% (n=74) referenced the author-practitioner’s knowledge regarding the way something is done in another location, while 72.2% (n=192) do not. Entries labeled ‘no’ are usually general discussions of the profession/place or other miscellaneous uses (Fig. 4).

Chart

Fig 3. Percentage of entries tagged with “pro” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

Chart

Fig 4. Percentage of entries tagged with “pl” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

These results give an initial look at the presence of oral culture within the manuscript. Within these tags, the author-practitioner mentions techniques and recipes done in other places or by other professions. Often, he specifically includes that he heard this information, making it clear that it’s orally transmitted, while other times he is more ambiguous about where he acquired the information from. As such, one limitation of this textual analysis is that contextual examination of the surrounding text has to be done to best interpret the author-practitioner’s meaning and determine the source of the information he is writing of. Nevertheless, in all of these instances, he is describing a technique done by another profession or place and physically recording this information into a literary form, and thus contributing to the trend of transcribing the practices of his field that have scarcely been recorded before. Further, none of the instances where he is less explicit about hearing the information include a citation or reference to another text or written work, making it likely that he is transcribing knowledge that he acquired not from another text but rather through the transmission of knowledge via oral methods or experience.7

Within the tags that were categorized as ‘yes’ for indicating a specific reference to how something is done in another place or profession, I broke down the categories according to the specific place/profession mentioned (Fig. 5-6).

Chart

Fig 5. Breakdown of all places mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge.

Chart

Fig 6. Breakdown of all professions mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge. For a description of all the profession categories, please refer to Appendix 4.

Women and Peasants Within the Oral Culture of Ms. Fr. 640

Oral culture was heavily propagated by women and lower-class members of society. In fact, at the time of the manuscript, books and other written documents were still largely connected to the upper and elite classes. As such, women and peasants, many of whom were illiterate, relied on transmission of knowledge through vernacular modes.8 At the same time, these groups of people were also highly involved in the handiwork of the time. For example, fields were predominantly worked by the lower classes, and French peasants were hired by merchants to process harvested grains for importation to urban artisans.9 As such, it is likely that peasants held wide-ranging knowledge about various skills and practices, many of which would have been transferred through experience and word of mouth. Yet, in Ms. Fr. 640, there are only two explicit references to techniques employed by peasants. On fol. 67r, the author-practitioner mentions that peasants used taffeta to make banners, while on fol. 121v he mentions the type of bowls which peasants eat their soup from.

Similarly, women were highly involved in many of the practices described in Ms. Fr. 640, including gardening and food storage and preparation, meaning they were also very knowledgeable in the cultivation and uses of a variety of plants.10 Women were also commonly responsible for the creation of medicine, and many of these recipes were collected by the women and traded via networks of oral transmission.11 Yet, despite this, women have very little presence within Ms. Fr. 640, and none of the medicinal recipes included are linked to women. In fact, of the seven mentions of women in the manuscript, only brief references are included to techniques or recipes employed by them. On fol. 58r, the author-practitioner mentions that “ladies, wanting to color their cheeks, grind Florence lake very finely, then fill a little cotton with it, which they next wrap in a little fabric of Cambray which is clear. And thus they pounce the lake on their cheeks & then, with another clean cotton, they soften it.” On fol. 113v, we get a reference that women make starch water, giving us subtle insights into their working lives. Albeit brief, the references to peasants and women serve the dual purpose of confirming the presence of both groups in the production processes of the time, while also highlighting the way in which they were frequently overlooked in the written traditions that were emerging.

Conclusion

Although the author-practitioner does not often describe where he acquired his recipes from, he offers wide-ranging clues to the importance of oral culture to the acquisition of the knowledge he describes. For example, many of the medicinal recipes he recounts include a place of origin. Given that it’s highly unlikely that the author-practitioner visited those places, it is probable that he acquired this information orally from others, such as artisans or travelers.12 Sometimes, he is more explicit about how he came about his knowledge, and he often states that he learned of a technique or recipe from a place or a specific profession.13 For example, when describing a salve for burns in fol. 103r, he details that “A gunpowder maker who had almost completely burnt himself & showed no sign of the burn, taught me this,” further suggesting that the efficacy of this recipe is tied to the vernacular mode and first-hand nature of its acquisition. This method of knowledge gathering is a pattern frequently found throughout the manuscript, and in this way, Ms. Fr. 640 elucidates the ways in which the advent of written texts and recorded recipes made long term changes within the field of artisanal craftsmanship, which had traditionally been passed down through word of mouth and in apprenticeships. The significance of this synergy of the oral with the written is that it is self-perpetuating: the author-practitioner records his knowledge of recipes and then builds upon them with his own experience and experimentation. These documents can then spread to others, who can relate their own experiences to the new written frameworks of craftsmanship and contribute to the further sustenance of the knowledge. Interestingly, while the manuscript provides insight into this oral transmission of recipes, it also serves another function by highlighting gaps in the records of its history, such as the role of women and peasants in the transmission of said recipes.

All in all, the folios contained within Ms. Fr. 640 possess immense value in being the manifestations of real-time circulation of artisanal knowledge and technique. This spread of knowledge, as facilitated by print culture, not only exchanged with older forms of oral traditions, but brought these traditions to the forefront, ushering in a new era for the exchange and recording of work.

Bibliography

Anttonen, Pertti, Cecilia af Forselles, and Kirsti Salmi-Niklander, eds. Oral Tradition and Book Culture. Studia Fennica, Folkloristica 24. Helsinki: FinnishLiterature Society (SKS), 2018.

Beik, William. A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Camps, Celine and Margot Lyautey. “Ma<r>king and Knowing: Encoding BnF Ms. Fr. 640.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_335_ie_19.DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/cjhd-wh90

DeVinney, Joslyn. “Smoke as Medicine.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_048_fa_16. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/kfja-0v86

Folger Shakespeare Library. “The Food of Shakespeare’s World.” Last modified July 26, 2016. [[https://www.folger.edu/shakespeare-unlimited/food-wendy-wall](https://www.folger.edu/blogs/folger-spotlight/encores-recipes-for-thought-lecture-by-wendy-wall-2011/)].

Gans, Sofia. “Circulation of Knowledge in Europe.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_018_sp_15. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/6zzw-s813

Gurevich, Aaron J. and Ann Shukman. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘Peasant Visions’ of the Late Twelfth-Early Thirteenth Centuries.” New Literary History 16, no. 1 (1984): 51–66.

Kalpagam, U. “Oral History: Reconstructing Women’s Role.” Economic and Political Weekly 21, no. 38/39 (1986): 1683–87.

Liu, Xiaomeng. “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript: Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_057_sp_17. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/wq5p-p848

Making and Knowing Project. “BnF Ms. Fr. 640 – Making and Knowing Project.” Accessed December 20, 2021. https://www.makingandknowing.org/bnf-ms-fr-640/.

Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.

Appendix 1: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say”

Description folio
Some say it is not good to distil in this <tl><m>copper</m> 003v
according to the common saying. <pa>Beans</pa> 009r
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro> 012v
that is lost, others say that it is <m>refired enamel</m>. And by means 012v
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying 013v
all in one go but in two & ramming each time, saying that each 018r
<head>Common saying</head> 020v
<ab>Some say that one should remove the ball if the <wp>cannon</wp> is loaded 021v
wall, some say, <del>for</del> that is, as if at an 025r
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere to 029v
to a certain place and back, he cannot say boot without spur four times 034r
<ab><mark>X</mark> If he tries to say<del><fr>a</fr></del><comment rid=”c_034r_04”/> it, 034r
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> 036v
<ab>One says that rarely a tree planted on <tmp><pn>St. Paul</pn>’s 038v
<m>aquafortis</m>; however, one says that <md>this corrupts them 046r
afterward & causes a blackness on them</md>. One says that <m>oil of 046r
in a piece of <m><al>beef</al></m>, then boiled, rejoins them, as they say. 047r
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=”c_032v_01”/> One says 049r
opening the beak, one would say that they are.<comment rid=”c_049v_05”/> 049v
that it does not want for such food (some say one <m>egg yolk</m> per 052r
say the same for <m>finely pulverized tripoli</m> that does not want to 068v
<ab render=”wide”><emph>The <m>blackest lead</m></emph>, so some say, is the best & the softest 072v
those who plant the large feet against a slope say that it makes a 088r
neatly, it will also behave well with <m>copper</m>. Some say that the 088v
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in the 098r
one says, for <ms>℥</ms>, this is to be understood: on 100v
Some say that, mixing the <m>gold</m> with the <m>pebbles</m> and the 100v
Others say that it is necessary that the <m>gold</m> be cemented several 100v
<pa><fr>mericoton</fr> peaches</pa>, are grafted in clefts. One says 105v
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del> 136v
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=”c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrong 151r
says that the <pl>Phoenicians</pl> would come from the <pl>Red Sea</pl> 162r
royal prophet says, <del><la><bp>Manus</bp> meae</la></del> 166v

Appendix 2: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “said”

Description folio
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying 013v
was said, & continues thus until the wall is complete, 014r
end of the aforesaid <tl>ruler</tl>. Next, they measure with a 021v
need, they tighten the said wedges, wedging them with the 030v
<m>sanguine</m>, as is said elsewhere, the black & gray & 037v
<ab>One finds <m>sapphires</m> that one calls <df>of the trellis</df>, because they are pierced and it is said that a 038r
<m>wool</m>, and if it dyes fifteen times, it is said to be fifteen 039r
<ab>It is said that <m>pulverized talc</m> blown into with a <tl>lamp</tl> 043v
<del><fr>on</fr></del> is said. Some spin among the leaves & make 054r
Try <m>calcined <al>oyster</al> shells</m>. They are said to be 080v
other pieces, saying that the said <m>glair</m> makes it come out 085v
<ab>It is said, at the beginning of the book<comment rid=”c_097r_02”/> 097r
third time with the doubled <m>foil</m>, as has been said, then burnish them 097r
<tl>molds</tl>, as said, then they cast it in <m>wax</m>. In that way 116v
they cast them in <m>metal</m>, as is said.</ab> 116v
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaid 121v
black & no longer <m>smoked</m>. Then, he wetted the aforesaid <m>tartar</m> 128v

Appendix 3: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the profession tag

Description Label Category folio
promptly dry. <pro>Frame makers</pro>, to avoid the trouble of polishing frame maker Wood Workers 4r
their <m>ebony</m>, varnish it with this, as do <pro><mu>guitar</mu> makers</pro>. guitar maker Wood Workers 4r
<tl>file</tl>. <pro>Glass button makers</pro> also avail themselves of glass maker Glass Workers 6v
being <m>salted</m>. <pro>Joiners</pro> <m>glue</m> their masterpieces joiner Wood Workers 7r
with it and <pro><mu>guitar</mu> maker<ill/></pro> use it for delicate works. guitar maker Wood Workers 7r
<head>M<del><ill/></del>ixture of <pro>Pewterers</pro></head> pewterer Metal Workers 8v
<head><pro>Plowman</pro></head> plowman Field Workers 9r
<pro>harvesters</pro> beat it most often <tmp>at night <env>in the cool harvester Field Workers 9r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> painter Painters 9r
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head> merchant Merchants 9r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> painter Painters 9v
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head> merchant Merchants 9v
<ab><comment rid=”c_009v_03”/>The rule that <pro>merchants</pro> are accustomed to keep in their merchant Merchants 9v
<ab><pro>Painters</pro> make it beautiful, making the first ground of painter Painters 10r
<pro><oc>furbishers</oc></pro> to make a seat furbisher Metal Workers 11v
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro> lapidaries Stone Workers 12v
<tl><pro>goldsmith</pro>’s forge</tl> with three or four small goldsmith Metal Workers 12v
<pro>gunpowder makers</pro> profit from them.</ab> gunpowder maker Gun Workers 14r
<ab render=”wide”>Most <pro>people</pro> consider that <m>iron</m>, once melted, people Common People 16r
forges</tl>, in which it only becomes red-hot. <pro>Alchemists</pro> alchemist Alchemists 16r
The <pro>miners</pro>, to make the <m>iron</m> run, put at the mouth of miner Metal Workers 16r
<head>On the <pro>gunner</pro></head> gunner Gun Workers 17r
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> glass worker Glass Workers 20r
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head> gunner Gun Workers 21r
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head> gunner Gun Workers 25v
one in the middle, one at the mouth. When <pro>founders</pro> want to work on their founder Metal Workers 25v
But because some <pro>gunners</pro> prefer a <wp>piece</wp> which is weighted at the front gunner Gun Workers 25v
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head> pewterer Metal Workers 28v
<env>mine</env>, because the <pro>masters</pro> remelt it <del><fr>a</fr></del> in metal worker Metal Workers 28v
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put in miner Metal Workers 28v
Commonly, the <pro>sworn master pewterers</pro> from pewterer Metal Workers 28v
tin</m>. The <pro>others, who work in the <env>countryside</env></pro>, worker Metal Workers 28v
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere to apothecary Alchemists 29v
<head><comment rid=”c_030r_02”/><pro>Pewterer</pro></head> pewterer Metal Workers 30r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> painter Painters 31v
<ab><pro>Scribes</pro> achieve darkening of <m>lake</m> & other scribe Paper Workers 31v
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> painter Painters 32r
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> make painter Painters 32r
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> make painter Paper Workers 32r
<head><pro>Mat maker</pro></head> mat maker Textile Workers 32v
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> glass worker Glass Workers 32v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> founder Metal Workers 32v
sold for xxx or 40 <cn>lb</cn>. Another, which <pro>founders</pro> use, founder Metal Workers 32v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> founder Metal Workers 36v
true that <pro>foun<del><fr>ables</fr></del><add>ders</add></pro> mix in founder Metal Workers 36v
<head><m><pro>Glassworkers</pro>’ glass</m></head> glass worker Glass Workers 36v
<pro>worker</pro>, with long shears, cleaves & cuts lengthwise. worker Glass Workers 36v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> founder Metal Workers 37r
<head><pro>Gardener</pro></head> gardener plant worker 37v
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> glass worker Glass Workers 37v
<pro>glassworker</pro> who is working has a <sn>stench</sn> from his glass worker Glass Workers 37v
certain <pro>king</pro> had made from these a certain ornament in the king Stone Workers 38r
<ab><pro>Stone cutters</pro> sometimes choose old pieces of <m>antique stone cutter Stone Workers 38r
<head><pro>Merchant</pro><comment rid=”c_038v_02”/></head> merchant Merchants 38v
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head> goldsmith Metal Workers 39r
This is why, to save money, <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use it to assemble, in goldsmith Metal Workers 39r
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have thus assembled their <m>silver goldsmith Metal Workers 39r
the soil with <tl>shovels of <m>iron</m></tl>, as <pro>gardeners</pro> do. gardener plant worker 39r
<tl><pro>dyers</pro>’ vat</tl>, and to fill a <tl>vat</tl> with it, one dyer Painters 39r
fashion of <pro>glassworkers</pro>, who wash their <m>glass pane</m> with glass worker Glass Workers 39v
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, <m>gild</m> your entire <m>glass pane</m> with goldsmith Metal Workers 39v
being pressed by <pro>vintagers</pro>, but it does not keep, & vintager plant worker 40r
which the <pro>painters</pro> use, but a thicker kind, which is painter Painters 40v
burnished by <pro>those who make <m>gemstone foils</m></pro> gemstone maker Stone Workers 40v
<del><fr>Av</fr></del> or by <pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & that gives it goldsmith Metal Workers 40v
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do not melt <m>latten</m> in a founder Metal Workers 40v
<head><m>Earth for casting, for <pro>founders</pro></m></head> founder Metal Workers 41r
<ab>If the <pro>shearer</pro> sometimes wounds them, he puts shearer animal workers 41v
<comment rid=”c_041v_01”/>If the <pro>shearer</pro> wants to shearer animal workers 41v
<head><pro>Arquebusier</pro></head> arquebusier Gun Workers 43v
<head><pro>Pewterer</pro></head> pewterer Metal Workers 44r
masters</pro></env>. But elsewhere, they add as much as they can. One master Metal Workers 44r
that <pro>coppersmiths</pro> make</m>. This makes the plate more coppersmith Metal Workers 44r
<ab>If the <pro>scribe</pro> wants to clean his <tl>quill</tl> promptly scribe Paper Workers 46v
<head><pro>Shoemaker</pro></head> shoe maker Textile Workers 46v
<tl>those for <pro>glassmakers</pro></tl>, as <m>glass</m> is not as glass maker Glass Workers 47v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> founder Metal Workers 48r
<del>One</del> <pro>Pewterers</pro> put in <del>on the <m>fine pewterer Metal Workers 48v
by the <pro>pewterers</pro> to sell it better. <del><fr>O</fr></del> pewterer Metal Workers 48v
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=”c_032v_01”/> One says pewterer Metal Workers 49r
They cast with <m>solder</m> that <del><pro>pewterers</pro></del> pewterer Metal Workers 49r
<add><pro>glassworkers</pro></add> use. </ab> glass worker Glass Workers 49r
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head> pewterer Metal Workers 49r
<ab>The <m>steel</m> that <pro>farriers</pro> & <pro><m>iron</m> farrier animal workers 50v
workers</pro> commonly use is not refined like that from workers Metal Workers 50v
comes from the <env>mine</env>. And the <pro>workers</pro> choose it workers Metal Workers 50v
<head><pro>Cutters of <tl>printing plates</tl></pro></head> printing plate cutter Metal Workers 51r
<ab>which is different from that of the <pro>printers</pro>, one needs printer Paper Workers 51v
of the <pro>worker</pro> is <del>to it</del> to use the heat of its worker animal workers 52r
<pro>merchants</pro> bring there is considered the best because the merchant Merchants 53v
<head><comment rid=”c_057v_01”/><pro>Sheath maker</pro></head> sheath maker Textile Workers 57v
<ab><pro>Sheath makers</pro> use <m>small, very delicate skins of sheath maker Textile Workers 57v
<pro>tanners</pro> do. And this <m>dye</m>, being astringent, makes the tanner Textile Workers 57v
<head><underline><pro>Painter</pro></underline><comment rid=”c_057v_04”/></head> painter Painters 57v
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panels painter Painters 60r
this reason, <pro>painters</pro> use it to clean their <tl><m>oil</m> painter Painters 60v
them. Also, <pro>painters</pro>, sometimes envious of the work painter Painters 60v
<pro>illuminators</pro>, and grind their colors very finely, protect illuminator Painters 60v
<head><m>Water</m> to give light for the <pro>painter</pro></head> painter Painters 61v
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on flesh painter Painters 63r
The <pro>painter</pro> also teaches himself with the <tl>mirror</tl>, painter Painters 65r
<pro>Illuminators</pro> painting on <m>paper</m> temper their colors illuminator Painters 65v
<pro>Painters</pro> must all learn how to depict after nature, for to them painter Painters 65v
supports <m>oil</m>. It is with this that <pro>painters</pro> trick the painter Painters 67r
by <pro>locksmiths</pro> for their rough work are only made of locksmith Metal Workers 67v
<m>steel</m>. <pro>Founders</pro> whose work is to repair <m>latten</m> founder Metal Workers 67v
that <pro>painters</pro> use</m>. It releases very neatly, does not want painter Painters 68r
the <del><fr>p</fr></del><comment rid=”c_068v_01”/> colors that the <pro>painters</pro> grind for <m>oil</m>. This one, once dry, you can painter Painters 68v
burnished in little wheels that <pro>pewterers</pro> sell, comes out pewterer Metal Workers 68v
<head><pro>Joiner</pro></head> joiner Wood Workers 69r
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grinds molder Molders 69r
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do cast <tl>frames</tl> up to 30 or 40 <ms>lb</ms>, founder Metal Workers 69v
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from this common people Common People 71v
<pro>cutlers</pro></m>, because it is only <m>sludge</m>, but rather those cutler Stone Workers 71v
Some, such as <pro>printers</pro>, mix <m>iron or pin filings</m> printer Paper Workers 72v
<ab><pro>Founders</pro>, to make the handles of their bells, use it. And founder Metal Workers 77r
<pro>pewterers</pro> use to make plate, which is composed of 9 or pewterer Metal Workers 79v
<pro>potters</pro> make a whitening on pots</m> to make <m>lead</m> run potter potter 81r
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head> clockmaker clock makers 82r
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head> clockmaker clock makers 82v
<m><tl>lute</tl></m> it as you know <pro>founders</pro> do. And also, one ought founder Metal Workers 82v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> founder Metal Workers 85v
<ab>Some <emph><pro>founders</pro></emph> have this superstition, founder Metal Workers 87r
<ab><emph><pro>Founders</pro></emph>, in order to prevent their large cast founder Metal Workers 87r
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> take the <m>roots of a young <pa>elm</pa></m> founder Metal Workers 87v
<head><pro>Baker</pro></head> baker Food Workers 88r
<pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> &, who for profit, do not artisan Stone Workers 88v
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=”c_090r_01”/> molder Molders 90r
<ab><pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> & who need to further artisan Stone Workers 90r
<pro>artisans</pro> willingly gather. And thus, if they do artisan Stone Workers 90r
<pro>painters</pro> bring their <tl>palette</tl> to the painter Painters 93v
<pro>grocers</pro>, & temper & alloy it with a little white grocer Painters 93v
<ab><pro>Those who create <wp>sword guards</wp></pro> are <pro>artisans</pro> sword guard maker Metal Workers 94v
<ab>The <pro>furbisher</pro> buys his blades by the <ms>dozen</ms>, which furbisher Metal Workers 95r
<ab>The first thing the <pro>furbisher</pro> does when he gets his new furbisher Metal Workers 95r
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him some locksmith Metal Workers 95r
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him some farrier Metal Workers 95r
<ab>The <pro>furbishers</pro> buy them by <ms>dozens</ms>, the furbisher Metal Workers 95v
<ab>Then the <pro>furbisher</pro> puts them on a small bench, called a furbisher Metal Workers 95v
scabbard to be well made. It is true that for <pro>common people</pro>, common people Common People 96r
<tl><pro>furbishers</pro>’ furnace</tl>, without them touching the furbisher Metal Workers 96v
<head><pro>Locksmith</pro></head> locksmith Metal Workers 98r
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in the leadsmith Metal Workers 98r
<m>leaded</m> or vitrified. I believe that <pro>glassmakers</pro> could glass maker Glass Workers 99r
& some & the <pro>common people</pro> put in common people Common People 100v
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkali glass maker Glass Workers 100v
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkali apothecary Alchemists 100v
In this way, the <pro>common people</pro> make <m>emeralds</m> & cast in common people Common People 100v
<pro>gunpowder maker</pro> who had almost completely burnt himself gunpowder maker Gun Workers 103r
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head> goldsmith Metal Workers 104v
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> painter Painters 105r
<head><pro>Fountain maker</pro></head> fountain maker Stone Workers 105v
water</env>, which <pro><al>crayfish</al> catchers</pro> crayfish catcher animal workers 107r
them</pro> did not take this into account, & assured me that there molder Molders 110r
stick which <pro>pastry makers</pro></tl> use, which should be a little pastry maker Food Workers 112v
water</m> that <pro>women</pro> use to make their <m>starch</m>. For women Common People 113v
<m>Sublimate</m> is commonly employed by <pro>goldsmiths</pro> for goldsmith Metal Workers 120r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>use</del> <add>use</add> to work goldsmith Metal Workers 120v
The <m>sand with which <pro>goldsmiths</pro> buff <m>enamels</m> or the goldsmith Metal Workers 121r
white one that <pro>glassmakers</pro> use</m>, & <m>any lean sand that does glass maker Glass Workers 121r
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaid peasant Common People 121v
waste which <pro>founders</pro> use to cast their <wp>cannons</wp></m>, or any founder Metal Workers 121v
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> who have knowledge of this substance sell a goldsmith Metal Workers 123r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & especially to <pro>those who work in plate goldsmith Metal Workers 123r
furnace</tl>. So that when <pro>goldsmiths</pro> want to cast some goldsmith Metal Workers 124v
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or from workers Metal Workers 125r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> do not put any in, nevertheless it is good, and I have goldsmith Metal Workers 128v
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quick goldsmith Metal Workers 128v
color you want. This is the <m>wax</m> <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use for goldsmith Metal Workers 133r
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths</pro> scrape <m>gold leaf</m> with the <tl>brim of a burin</tl>, goldsmith Metal Workers 136r
you cast it. <pro>Casters</pro> do not usually take that <m>very yellow caster Molders 136v
work of the <pro>founder</pro>, for one only needs a <env><po>spring</po> of founder Metal Workers 137r
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have something to <m>solder</m> promptly goldsmith Metal Workers 138v
<head><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl></head> molder Molders 143r
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it, goldsmith Metal Workers 149r
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths who work in large wares and plate</pro> get whatever goldsmith Metal Workers 149v
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=”c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrong molder Molders 151r
Some <pro>goldsmiths</pro> assay it on <m>gold, thinly beaten goldsmith Metal Workers 157r
<ab>As <pro>small peddlers</pro> lay open small wares in order to buy peddler Common People 162r
secrets from my benevolent <pro>readers</pro>.<hr/></ab>   Common People 162r
<head><pro>Perfumer</pro></head> perfumer Perfumer 163r
If something is omitted: the <pro>harvester</pro> is not reproached for harvester Food Workers 166r
<ab>If any <pro>artisans</pro> complain artisan Common People 166r

Appendix 4: Descriptions of profession categories

Profession Category Description
Metal Workers Those whose work primarily involves metal, such as goldsmiths and founders
Painters Painters
Glass Workers Those whose work primarily involves glass, directly referenced to as glass workers in the manuscript
Common People In reference to a daily life practice not specially tied to a profession, such as something peasants like to eat
Stone Workers Those whose work primarily involves stone, such as stone cutters
Gun Makers Those involved in any part of the gun making process
Molders Molders
Wood Workers Those whose work primarily involves wood, such as joiners
Merchants Merchants
Paper Makers Those whose work primarily involves paper, such as scribes and printers
Animal Workers Those whose work primarily involves animals, such as shearers
Textile Workers Those whose work primarily involves textiles, such as shoe makers
Alchemists Those specially referenced to as alchemists as well as apothecary workers
Plant Workers Those whose work primarily involves plants, such as gardeners
Food Makers Those involved in making food, such as bakers
Field Workers Those whose work is primarily tied to fields, such as plowman and harvesters
Clock Makers Those involved in any part of the clock making process, specifically referenced to as clock makers
Potters Potters
Perfumers Perfumers

Appendix 5: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the place tag

Description folio Label Category
the <pl>Faubourg Saint-Germain</pl>,<comment rid=”c_001r_76”/> knows of the 001r Faubourg Saint-Germain France
<pa><fr><oc>pomole</oc></fr></pa><comment rid=”c_009r_01”/> in <pl>Gascony</pl> or 009r Gascony France
<pa><fr>baillard</fr></pa> in <pl>France</pl>,<comment rid=”c_009r_02”/> makes the earth shake seven <tmp>years</tmp> later, 009r France France
<ab>It is made in <pl>Lyon</pl> from the <m>juice of weld</m> & 010r lyon France
who make it in <pl>Germany</pl> compound it like <m>enamel</m>, in large 011r Germany Germany
one from the region of <pl>Albi</pl> is whiter. It must be cooked with a 012r albi France
<pl>Montauban</pl> make, it is necessary to snuff it out often, for 016v montauban France
<ab><m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is smoother & more even than 020r lorraine France
<m>drugs</m> that the <pro>glassworkers</pro> put on. <m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is sold by the <ms>bundle</ms><comment rid=”c_020r_04”/> & each 020r lorraine France
<pl>Toulouse</pl> named Cardaillac<comment rid=”c_020v_02”/> as one of the most beautiful in 020v toulouse France
<pl>France</pl>, all the more since it weighs two hundred and fifty 020v France France
Know the magazines of <pl>France</pl> for the 024v France France
is 8 <ms><pl>Montpellier</pl> <fr>pans</fr></ms></head> 027v montpellier France
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put in 028v England England
makes ceiling ornaments with it in <pl>Rome</pl>. One can make bed 029r rome Italy
<ab>As soon as the colors of panels are well dried, the <pl>Flemish</pl> 032r flemish Flanders
<ab>They make two kinds of them in <pl>Toulouse</pl>, one to hang on the 032v toulouse France
why <m>solder</m> is made with it. In <pl>Germany</pl> they make very 032v Germany Germany
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> 036v lorraine France
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> 036v Flanders Flanders
It is made in the same way in <pl>England</pl> more beautifully. 036v England England
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with 036v rouen France
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with 036v rouen France
salt</m></tl> over it, which an <pl>Englishman</pl> called 037v english England
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with 044v coustance France
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with 044v coustance France
xxx <ms><cn>sous</cn></ms>. They bring them to <pl>Toulouse</pl> to 044v toulouse France
transport them afterward to <pl>Spain</pl>, and take <m>silk tammy</m> 044v Spain Spain
<ab>Those from <pl>Bayonne</pl>, which seem to be made of 047r bayonne France
reduce to a mass. The <pl>Germans</pl> make their <tl>files</tl> from 050v germans Germany
<head>The work done in <pl>Algiers</pl></head> 052r algiers Algeria
& make more <m>silk</m>. In <pl>Spain</pl>, from one <ms>ounce</ms> of 053v Spain Spain
The <pl>Italians</pl> soften by hatching with a large flattened 056v italians Italy
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> do not use any whites for flesh colors in 057v flemish Flanders
well. <comment rid=”c_059r_01”/>The <pl>Italians</pl> commonly make three shadows, the first one, 059r italians Italy
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panels 060r flemish Flanders
<head>Work of the <pl>Flemish</pl></head> 060v flemish Flanders
<head><tl>Frames</tl><comment rid=”c_061v_02”/> of the <pl>Germans</pl> </head> 061v germans Germany
<ab><pl>Germans</pl> who work in miniature make <tl>frames</tl> not of 061v germans Germany
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> use <m>lead from <pl>Flanders</pl></m> because 063r germans Germany
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on flesh 063r germans Germany
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> & those who paint panels by the dozen only 066r flemish Flanders
a little thick, but in <pl>France</pl><lb/> 066r France France
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> give a layer of <m>distemper glue</m> 066r flemish Flanders
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make boxes <del><fr>p</fr></del> covered with painted 067r germans Germany
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grinds 069r toulouse France
The <pl>English</pl>, when they feel a cold coming on, mull <m>wine</m> in this 071r english England
The common <pl>English</pl> put <m>sugar</m> in <m>wine</m> to affect 071r english England
<ab>The <pl>Irish</pl> do not drink any <m>wine</m> because they convert 071r irish Ireland
<ab>In a certain region of <pl>England</pl>, the <al>sheep</al> that 071v England England
<ab>In <pl>Ireland</pl>, there are none, & if one touches them 071v Ireland Ireland
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from this 071v England England
<ab render=”wide”>The <pl>Germans</pl> cast their <m>leads</m> very thinly, because it seems 072v germans Germany
<pl>Fosseret</pl><comment rid=”c_081r_02”/> & in another place 081r fosseret France
called <pl>Ox</pl>.<comment rid=”c_081r_03”/></ab> 081r ox France
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> reglue their <tl><m>earthen</m> pots</tl> with 085r flemish Flanders
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=”c_090r_01”/> 090r foix France
<ab>In <pl>Italy</pl>, those who are in the colder regions, like 090v Italy Italy
<pl>Lombardy</pl>, make <tl>square wooden cases</tl>, a little larger at 090v lombardy Italy
The <pl>Italians</pl> scarcely varnish their paintings because they layer 097v italians Italy
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make <m>minium</m> boil well in 101v germans Germany
flesh color. And as for the ground, they make it with <m><fr>azur d’<pl>Acre</pl></fr></m> 102v colchis Algeria
<ab>The <pl>English</pl>, who caress their d<al>ogs</al> a lot for 103r english England
that the <pl>Italians</pl> put in, because one often has to put the 109r italians Italy
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or from 125r damascus syria
<pl>Hungary</pl>, neighbors to the <pl>Turks</pl>, separate, in the 125r hungary hungary
<pl>Germans</pl>, and that such an alloy readily makes a film 128v germans Germany
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quick 128v France France
have seen an excellent <pl>German</pl> working thus. Having in my 128v german Germany
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del> 136v german Germany
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it, 149r Germany Germany
<m>white salt</m>. <pl>Germans</pl> make statues for their <env>fountains</env> 159v germans Germany
<ab>In <pl>Spain</pl>, one lays them bare at the roots <ms><tmp>during 162v Spain Spain
others from <pl>Tyana</pl> learned by their travels the disciplines of which they called themselves <pro>inventors</pro> 166r tyana Turkey

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  7. Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript: Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848. ↩

  8. Aaron J. Gurevich and Ann Shukman. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘Peasant Visions’ of the Late Twelfth-Early Thirteenth Centuries.” New Literary History 16, no. 1 (1984): 51–66. https://doi.org/10.2307/468775. ↩

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  10. “The Food of Shakespeare’s World,” Folger Shakespeare Library, last modified July 26, 2016. https://www.folger.edu/shakespeare-unlimited/food-wendy-wall. ↩

  11. Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript:Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848. ↩

  12. Joslyn DeVinney, “Smoke as Medicine,” 2016, https://www.doi.org/10.7916/kfja-0v86. ↩

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