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Dyeing Textiles with Cochineal: A Historical Reconstruction

The Making and Knowing Project, Columbia University
Last updated 2023-03-30 by NJR

A downloadable version of this assignment: [PDF]

dyes-cochineal_header

Dyes and natural colorants

If you are not already familiar with historical dyes and natural colorants, refer to Presentation: Cochineal Dye: History, Chemistry, and Preparation for more complete information and further explanation of natural colorants and dyeing.

Presentation: Cochineal Dye: History, Chemistry, and Preparation

A dye is “a compound that absorbs into and colors another material” and “is generally a complex organic material” (Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia Online (CAMEO)). Until the onset of synthetic dyes in the mid-nineteenth century, most dyes were sourced from natural colorants such as plants, insects, lichens, and shellfish.

In order to dye materials (typically textiles, but also wood, paper, and ivory, for example), the natural colorant must first be extracted from the dyestuffs (the plant, insect, etc.). This is most usually done by placing the dyestuffs in water and using either time (soaking) or heat (bringing to a simmer) to extract the soluble colorant into the water. The materials can then be placed into this dye bath to take on color.

Natural dyes can be categorized into one of three processes used to extracted the colorant and dye materials :

  1. Direct dyes
  2. Mordant dyes
  3. Vat dyes

Mordant dyes

The largest class of natural dyes is mordant dyes. In this process, textiles must first be treated with a mordant (typically a metal salt or coordination metal) in order to bind the dye more permanently to the textile. The textile binds to the mordant which in turn binds to the colorant. The mordant thus acts as a bridge between the textile and colorant.

The most common mordant is aluminum, typically in the form of alum (aluminum potassium sulfate). Other mordants include iron sulfate, copper sulfate, and tannins.

mordant-process

Jo Kirby et al, Natural Colorants for Dyeing and Lake Pigments: Practical Recipes and their Historical Sources (Archetype, London, 2014).

Cochineal

cochineal-plant

Cochineal, covered in a white excretion that acts as a protective layer, on a nopal pad (Naomi Rosenkranz, Altadena, CA, 2023)

Cochineal is a scale insect found on prickly pear or Barbary fig cactus (Opuntia ficusindica (L.)).

Species name: Dactylopius coccus

Chemical class: carminic acid (anthraquinone)

Region: Cultivated in Mexico and Peruvian Andes, before Spain brought to Europe in 1523 where it spread rapidly.

dried-cochineal

Dried cochineal, purchased from Kremer Pigments, NYC (Naomi Rosenkranz, New York, NY, 2015)

Phipps, Elena. Cochineal Red: the Art History of a Color. New York (N.Y.: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2010. Print.)

Examples of cochineal in art

Cochineal insects have been used for centuries in the Americas as both a red dye and pigment. In the sixteenth century, when they were first brought to Europe, their use proliferated and even continues to this day all around the world.

cochineal-dyes

cochineal-paintings

Historical recipe example for cochineal dye

De’ secreti del reverendo signore Alessio Piemontese (1558) as translated from the Dutch in Jo Kirby et al, Natural Colorants for Dyeing and Lake Pigments: Practical Recipes and their Historical Sources (Archetype, London, 2014), 37–38.

To dye silk carmine. First, you will rasp or scratch hard soap very finely, and let them [the soap shavings] dissolve in plain water; after that put your silk in a small bag made of linen or fine canvas, and put it in a kettle with the aforesaid soap and water. Let this boil for half an hour, moving it around regularly so it does not burn, then take it from the fire, wash it in salt water, and after that in sour water. Take also to every pound of silk a pound or more of rock alum dissolved in cold water, and be sure there is enough water; wherein you will put your silk without any bag, and let it lay therein without fire for eight hours. Then take it out, wash it in fresh water, then in salt water, and then again in fresh water, and do not let it dry but put it all wet into a kettle with the carmine well pestled and sieved, that is, three ounces for each pound of silk… And when it starts boiling then put in the silk prepared as above, and let it boil for a quarter of an hour. At last you will take it from the fire, and let it dry in the shade, and you will have a very excellent dyeing.

Modernized recipes, adapted for the laboratory (or kitchen)

Cochineal is a mordant dye. The following recipe has been adapted from Chapter 5, “Recipes,” of Jo Kirby et al, Natural Colorants for Dyeing and Lake Pigments: Practical Recipes and their Historical Sources (Archetype, London, 2014). While it is not typically found in recipes for cochineal because it results in a paler color, the additive potash (potassium carbonate) is sometimes added to dye bath in order to affect the color. This is included as an option in the instructions below.

It is necessary to prepare both a mordant bath and a dye bath.

Refer also to:

dye-process-overview

Recipe Measurements

Recipes for dyeing textiles often list ratios rather than outright amounts. The weight of textile will determine how much of the other ingredients are needed. The ratios below are provided for 1g of textile. To know how much of the mordant, water, cochineal, and optional additive are needed, first weigh the textiles you plan to dye then multiply that amount by the ratios below. For example, if your textile weigh 10g, you will need 1.25g cochineal and 625ml water.

You can also use:

Mordant: Alum

Material Amount /1g (g)
textile 1.00
alum 0.20
water 50.00

Cochineal

Material Amount /1g (g)
textile 1.00
cochineal 0.125
potash (optional) 0.0625
water 62.50

Materials and equipment (mordant bath)

Procedure (mordant bath)

Materials and equipment (dye bath)

procedure (dye bath)

dye-samples

An alternative method to using hotplates and beakers

If you do not have access to hotplates and heat-safe glass beakers, there are other options.

Dedicated pots

One alternative method is to use dedicated stainless steel or ceramic pots. While most natural colorants are not actively harmful, it is still best practice to avoid consuming them. Some mordants can react with and degrade the surface of cookware, so it is especially important to use pots you will not also use to cook with. To avoid very serious reactions, use stainless steel or ceramic cookware.

dye-pots

Bain-marie

Another method is to use a water bath or bain-marie (see this cooking blog for more information about bain-maries).

Advantages and notes

dyes-bain-marie

Sourcing materials

Mordants and Additives

Dyestuffs

Additional resources

See the Making and Knowing Project’s Hands-on Lesson Plans, Activities, Assignments, and Reconstruction Protocols

Sources of historical evidence