Oral Culture in Ms. Fr. 640
Hana Ghoneima
Making and Knowing Project, Fall 2021
BnF Ms. Fr. 640 stands at the intersection of a pivotal moment in history, in which craftspeople who were previously illiterate began recording their procedures and trade in writing.1 Within this context, Ms. Fr. 640 is an illuminating document not only for its content on craft techniques, but for the historical milestones and trends it embodies. One of those is oral culture, and its intersection with the written one. Oral culture is defined as a form of communication in which knowledge is transmitted orally from one person to another. According to the historian Jan Vansina, within oral culture “there must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation.”2 Importantly, oral culture can be interpreted as “Any situation in which people speak generates messages, some of which may be repeated and hence start a process of transmission,” and it includes both the process of oral transmission itself as well as its products.3 Similarly, oral culture can also be thought of as “a reconstruction of the past from oral sources…which will throw light on the particular aspect of social life under study.”4 As such, oral culture is understood as the shared transmission of vernacular experience, and is an important tool for the study of historical eras in which masses were largely illiterate and access to written work limited.
Despite the seeming contrast between oral and written sources, there is significant scholarly interest in the importance of handwritten and printed knowledge within oral culture. In fact, oral culture cannot be evaluated independently of written tradition, and the intersection of the two sheds light on topics such as authenticity and representation. According to Susan Stewart, “when oral forms are transformed into ‘evidence’ and ‘artefacts,’ they acquire all the characteristics of fragmentation, symbolic meaning, and literariness that are most valued by the literary culture.”5 In this light, studying the written material of BnF Ms. Fr. 640 is an important tool for understanding the oral transmission of craft knowledge and production techniques passed over generations.
As such, the purpose of this project is to locate traces of oral culture that are dispersed throughout Ms. Fr. 640. For the purpose of this project, oral culture was defined as any instance in which the author-practitioner referenced or implied that the knowledge he is writing of has been acquired from another person or place via hearing or something that is said. An example of this is in fol. 36v: “One says that in Lorraine & in Flanders well-made glass is made of fern ashes & pebbles…” Distinct here is his specific reference to having acquired this knowledge through other people’s talk. This is in contrast to instances in which he cites books or references written knowledge, such as in fol. 162r, in which he explains information about the Phoenecians acquired from Herodotus’ Clio. Below, I will lay out the methodology and results of different approaches I took to evaluating this issue.
References to “Say” and “Said”
Using the search functionality of Oxygen XML Editor, I compiled lists of all the times the author-practitioner used the words “say,” “said,” “hear,” or “heard” throughout the English translation of the Ms. Fr. 640. Then, I manually went through each entry on the list and cross-referenced them with their locations in the manuscript to check for instances where the author-practitioner is specifically referencing knowledge that is said/heard by another person. For example, on fol. 21v, he writes that “Some say that one should remove…” and in fol. 43v he writes that “It is said that pulverized talc…” These instances show direct examples where the author-practitioner is writing down things that he heard from elsewhere, including facts, techniques, and opinions of others. With the word “say,” of the 103 total times the word was used, 32% (n=33) specifically reference something that another person said and that the author-practitioner is now recording (Fig. 1). The word “said” was used 198 times, of which 8.6% (n=17) specifically reference something which another person said (Fig. 2). However, there were no instances of this with the words “hear” and “heard.”
Fig 1. Percentage of entries using the word “say” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).
Fig 2. Percentage of entries using the word “said” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).
For a look at all collected data involving the word “say,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.
For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say,” please refer to Appendix 1 .
For a look at all collected data involving the word “said,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.
For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say,” please refer to Appendix 2.
Orally Transmitted Knowledge Across Professions and Places
To investigate the presence of oral culture through a different lens, I went through the profession (“pro”) and place (“pl”) tags within Ms. Fr. 640. These editorial tags are encoded within the digital manuscript to describe certain words, phrases, and features of the text.6 The “pro” tag denotes instances where the author-practitioner references another recognized trade, such as a painter, while the “pl” tag highlights specific places that are mentioned in the text, such as France. In my initial search within the manuscript, I found that there were several instances where the author-practitioner references things he has heard or is aware that another profession or people from another place do. For example, in fol. 29v, he says: “Apothecaries say that anything which does not adhere to …” denoting that he is writing down something which he heard from apothecaries, while in fol. 136v he explains that “Some say that German tokens are …” As such, using Oxygen, I compiled a list of all the “pro” and “pl” tags within the manuscript. This resulted in a list of 366 “pro” tags and 266 “pl” tags. I manually went through each tag and sorted the list of results according to whether the author was actually referencing the way something is done or just casually referring to a place/profession. For example, a ‘yes’ would be the author-practitioner’s description of how glass is made in France while a ’no’ would be Venice turpentine, which is not actually referencing the place but is the given name of the material. Below are the initial graphs showing percentages of the number of tags actually referencing another place or profession in the context of how something is done versus tags that are not. Within the profession tag, 50.1% (n=183) specifically reference transmittable knowledge regarding the way another profession does something, while 49.9% (n=182) do not (Fig. 3). Within the place tag, 27.8% (n=74) referenced the author-practitioner’s knowledge regarding the way something is done in another location, while 72.2% (n=192) do not. Entries labeled ‘no’ are usually general discussions of the profession/place or other miscellaneous uses (Fig. 4).
Fig 3. Percentage of entries tagged with “pro” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).
Fig 4. Percentage of entries tagged with “pl” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).
These results give an initial look at the presence of oral culture within the manuscript. Within these tags, the author-practitioner mentions techniques and recipes done in other places or by other professions. Often, he specifically includes that he heard this information, making it clear that it’s orally transmitted, while other times he is more ambiguous about where he acquired the information from. As such, one limitation of this textual analysis is that contextual examination of the surrounding text has to be done to best interpret the author-practitioner’s meaning and determine the source of the information he is writing of. Nevertheless, in all of these instances, he is describing a technique done by another profession or place and physically recording this information into a literary form, and thus contributing to the trend of transcribing the practices of his field that have scarcely been recorded before. Further, none of the instances where he is less explicit about hearing the information include a citation or reference to another text or written work, making it likely that he is transcribing knowledge that he acquired not from another text but rather through the transmission of knowledge via oral methods or experience.7
Within the tags that were categorized as ‘yes’ for indicating a specific reference to how something is done in another place or profession, I broke down the categories according to the specific place/profession mentioned (Fig. 5-6).
Fig 5. Breakdown of all places mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge.
Fig 6. Breakdown of all professions mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge. For a description of all the profession categories, please refer to Appendix 4.
For a look at all collected data involving the tag “pro” please refer to the following spreadsheet.
For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the tag “pro,” please refer to Appendix 3.
For a description of all the profession categories, please refer to Appendix 4.
For a look at all collected data involving the tag “pl,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.
For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the tag “pl,” please refer to Appendix 5.
Women and Peasants Within the Oral Culture of Ms. Fr. 640
Oral culture was heavily propagated by women and lower-class members of society. In fact, at the time of the manuscript, books and other written documents were still largely connected to the upper and elite classes. As such, women and peasants, many of whom were illiterate, relied on transmission of knowledge through vernacular modes.8 At the same time, these groups of people were also highly involved in the handiwork of the time. For example, fields were predominantly worked by the lower classes, and French peasants were hired by merchants to process harvested grains for importation to urban artisans.9 As such, it is likely that peasants held wide-ranging knowledge about various skills and practices, many of which would have been transferred through experience and word of mouth. Yet, in Ms. Fr. 640, there are only two explicit references to techniques employed by peasants. On fol. 67r, the author-practitioner mentions that peasants used taffeta to make banners, while on fol. 121v he mentions the type of bowls which peasants eat their soup from.
Similarly, women were highly involved in many of the practices described in Ms. Fr. 640, including gardening and food storage and preparation, meaning they were also very knowledgeable in the cultivation and uses of a variety of plants.10 Women were also commonly responsible for the creation of medicine, and many of these recipes were collected by the women and traded via networks of oral transmission.11 Yet, despite this, women have very little presence within Ms. Fr. 640, and none of the medicinal recipes included are linked to women. In fact, of the seven mentions of women in the manuscript, only brief references are included to techniques or recipes employed by them. On fol. 58r, the author-practitioner mentions that “ladies, wanting to color their cheeks, grind Florence lake very finely, then fill a little cotton with it, which they next wrap in a little fabric of Cambray which is clear. And thus they pounce the lake on their cheeks & then, with another clean cotton, they soften it.” On fol. 113v, we get a reference that women make starch water, giving us subtle insights into their working lives. Albeit brief, the references to peasants and women serve the dual purpose of confirming the presence of both groups in the production processes of the time, while also highlighting the way in which they were frequently overlooked in the written traditions that were emerging.
Conclusion
Although the author-practitioner does not often describe where he acquired his recipes from, he offers wide-ranging clues to the importance of oral culture to the acquisition of the knowledge he describes. For example, many of the medicinal recipes he recounts include a place of origin. Given that it’s highly unlikely that the author-practitioner visited those places, it is probable that he acquired this information orally from others, such as artisans or travelers.12 Sometimes, he is more explicit about how he came about his knowledge, and he often states that he learned of a technique or recipe from a place or a specific profession.13 For example, when describing a salve for burns in fol. 103r, he details that “A gunpowder maker who had almost completely burnt himself & showed no sign of the burn, taught me this,” further suggesting that the efficacy of this recipe is tied to the vernacular mode and first-hand nature of its acquisition. This method of knowledge gathering is a pattern frequently found throughout the manuscript, and in this way, Ms. Fr. 640 elucidates the ways in which the advent of written texts and recorded recipes made long term changes within the field of artisanal craftsmanship, which had traditionally been passed down through word of mouth and in apprenticeships. The significance of this synergy of the oral with the written is that it is self-perpetuating: the author-practitioner records his knowledge of recipes and then builds upon them with his own experience and experimentation. These documents can then spread to others, who can relate their own experiences to the new written frameworks of craftsmanship and contribute to the further sustenance of the knowledge. Interestingly, while the manuscript provides insight into this oral transmission of recipes, it also serves another function by highlighting gaps in the records of its history, such as the role of women and peasants in the transmission of said recipes.
All in all, the folios contained within Ms. Fr. 640 possess immense value in being the manifestations of real-time circulation of artisanal knowledge and technique. This spread of knowledge, as facilitated by print culture, not only exchanged with older forms of oral traditions, but brought these traditions to the forefront, ushering in a new era for the exchange and recording of work.
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Appendix 1: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say”
Description | folio |
---|---|
Some say it is not good to distil in this <tl><m>copper</m> | 003v |
according to the common saying. <pa>Beans</pa> | 009r |
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro> | 012v |
that is lost, others say that it is <m>refired enamel</m>. And by means | 012v |
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying | 013v |
all in one go but in two & ramming each time, saying that each | 018r |
<head>Common saying</head> | 020v |
<ab>Some say that one should remove the ball if the <wp>cannon</wp> is loaded | 021v |
wall, some say, <del>for</del> that is, as if at an | 025r |
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere to | 029v |
to a certain place and back, he cannot say boot without spur four times | 034r |
<ab><mark>X</mark> If he tries to say<del><fr>a</fr></del><comment rid=“c_034r_04”/> it, | 034r |
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> | 036v |
<ab>One says that rarely a tree planted on <tmp><pn>St. Paul</pn>’s | 038v |
<m>aquafortis</m>; however, one says that <md>this corrupts them | 046r |
afterward & causes a blackness on them</md>. One says that <m>oil of | 046r |
in a piece of <m><al>beef</al></m>, then boiled, rejoins them, as they say. | 047r |
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=“c_032v_01”/> One says | 049r |
opening the beak, one would say that they are.<comment rid=“c_049v_05”/> | 049v |
that it does not want for such food (some say one <m>egg yolk</m> per | 052r |
say the same for <m>finely pulverized tripoli</m> that does not want to | 068v |
<ab render=“wide”><emph>The <m>blackest lead</m></emph>, so some say, is the best & the softest | 072v |
those who plant the large feet against a slope say that it makes a | 088r |
neatly, it will also behave well with <m>copper</m>. Some say that the | 088v |
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in the | 098r |
one says, for <ms>℥</ms>, this is to be understood: on | 100v |
Some say that, mixing the <m>gold</m> with the <m>pebbles</m> and the | 100v |
Others say that it is necessary that the <m>gold</m> be cemented several | 100v |
<pa><fr>mericoton</fr> peaches</pa>, are grafted in clefts. One says | 105v |
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del> | 136v |
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=“c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrong | 151r |
says that the <pl>Phoenicians</pl> would come from the <pl>Red Sea</pl> | 162r |
royal prophet says, <del><la><bp>Manus</bp> meae</la></del> | 166v |
Appendix 2: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “said”
Description | folio |
---|---|
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying | 013v |
was said, & continues thus until the wall is complete, | 014r |
end of the aforesaid <tl>ruler</tl>. Next, they measure with a | 021v |
need, they tighten the said wedges, wedging them with the | 030v |
<m>sanguine</m>, as is said elsewhere, the black & gray & | 037v |
<ab>One finds <m>sapphires</m> that one calls <df>of the trellis</df>, because they are pierced and it is said that a | 038r |
<m>wool</m>, and if it dyes fifteen times, it is said to be fifteen | 039r |
<ab>It is said that <m>pulverized talc</m> blown into with a <tl>lamp</tl> | 043v |
<del><fr>on</fr></del> is said. Some spin among the leaves & make | 054r |
Try <m>calcined <al>oyster</al> shells</m>. They are said to be | 080v |
other pieces, saying that the said <m>glair</m> makes it come out | 085v |
<ab>It is said, at the beginning of the book<comment rid=“c_097r_02”/> | 097r |
third time with the doubled <m>foil</m>, as has been said, then burnish them | 097r |
<tl>molds</tl>, as said, then they cast it in <m>wax</m>. In that way | 116v |
they cast them in <m>metal</m>, as is said.</ab> | 116v |
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaid | 121v |
black & no longer <m>smoked</m>. Then, he wetted the aforesaid <m>tartar</m> | 128v |
Appendix 3: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the profession tag
Description | Label | Category | folio |
---|---|---|---|
promptly dry. <pro>Frame makers</pro>, to avoid the trouble of polishing | frame maker | Wood Workers | 4r |
their <m>ebony</m>, varnish it with this, as do <pro><mu>guitar</mu> makers</pro>. | guitar maker | Wood Workers | 4r |
<tl>file</tl>. <pro>Glass button makers</pro> also avail themselves of | glass maker | Glass Workers | 6v |
being <m>salted</m>. <pro>Joiners</pro> <m>glue</m> their masterpieces | joiner | Wood Workers | 7r |
with it and <pro><mu>guitar</mu> maker<ill/></pro> use it for delicate works. | guitar maker | Wood Workers | 7r |
<head>M<del><ill/></del>ixture of <pro>Pewterers</pro></head> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 8v |
<head><pro>Plowman</pro></head> | plowman | Field Workers | 9r |
<pro>harvesters</pro> beat it most often <tmp>at night <env>in the cool | harvester | Field Workers | 9r |
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 9r |
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head> | merchant | Merchants | 9r |
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 9v |
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head> | merchant | Merchants | 9v |
<ab><comment rid=“c_009v_03”/>The rule that <pro>merchants</pro> are accustomed to keep in their | merchant | Merchants | 9v |
<ab><pro>Painters</pro> make it beautiful, making the first ground of | painter | Painters | 10r |
<pro><oc>furbishers</oc></pro> to make a seat | furbisher | Metal Workers | 11v |
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro> | lapidaries | Stone Workers | 12v |
<tl><pro>goldsmith</pro>’s forge</tl> with three or four small | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 12v |
<pro>gunpowder makers</pro> profit from them.</ab> | gunpowder maker | Gun Workers | 14r |
<ab render=“wide”>Most <pro>people</pro> consider that <m>iron</m>, once melted, | people | Common People | 16r |
forges</tl>, in which it only becomes red-hot. <pro>Alchemists</pro> | alchemist | Alchemists | 16r |
The <pro>miners</pro>, to make the <m>iron</m> run, put at the mouth of | miner | Metal Workers | 16r |
<head>On the <pro>gunner</pro></head> | gunner | Gun Workers | 17r |
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> | glass worker | Glass Workers | 20r |
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head> | gunner | Gun Workers | 21r |
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head> | gunner | Gun Workers | 25v |
one in the middle, one at the mouth. When <pro>founders</pro> want to work on their | founder | Metal Workers | 25v |
But because some <pro>gunners</pro> prefer a <wp>piece</wp> which is weighted at the front | gunner | Gun Workers | 25v |
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 28v |
<env>mine</env>, because the <pro>masters</pro> remelt it <del><fr>a</fr></del> in | metal worker | Metal Workers | 28v |
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put in | miner | Metal Workers | 28v |
Commonly, the <pro>sworn master pewterers</pro> from | pewterer | Metal Workers | 28v |
tin</m>. The <pro>others, who work in the <env>countryside</env></pro>, | worker | Metal Workers | 28v |
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere to | apothecary | Alchemists | 29v |
<head><comment rid=“c_030r_02”/><pro>Pewterer</pro></head> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 30r |
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 31v |
<ab><pro>Scribes</pro> achieve darkening of <m>lake</m> & other | scribe | Paper Workers | 31v |
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 32r |
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> make | painter | Painters | 32r |
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> make | painter | Paper Workers | 32r |
<head><pro>Mat maker</pro></head> | mat maker | Textile Workers | 32v |
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> | glass worker | Glass Workers | 32v |
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 32v |
sold for xxx or 40 <cn>lb</cn>. Another, which <pro>founders</pro> use, | founder | Metal Workers | 32v |
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 36v |
true that <pro>foun<del><fr>ables</fr></del><add>ders</add></pro> mix in | founder | Metal Workers | 36v |
<head><m><pro>Glassworkers</pro>’ glass</m></head> | glass worker | Glass Workers | 36v |
<pro>worker</pro>, with long shears, cleaves & cuts lengthwise. | worker | Glass Workers | 36v |
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 37r |
<head><pro>Gardener</pro></head> | gardener | plant worker | 37v |
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head> | glass worker | Glass Workers | 37v |
<pro>glassworker</pro> who is working has a <sn>stench</sn> from his | glass worker | Glass Workers | 37v |
certain <pro>king</pro> had made from these a certain ornament in the | king | Stone Workers | 38r |
<ab><pro>Stone cutters</pro> sometimes choose old pieces of <m>antique | stone cutter | Stone Workers | 38r |
<head><pro>Merchant</pro><comment rid=“c_038v_02”/></head> | merchant | Merchants | 38v |
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head> | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 39r |
This is why, to save money, <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use it to assemble, in | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 39r |
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have thus assembled their <m>silver | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 39r |
the soil with <tl>shovels of <m>iron</m></tl>, as <pro>gardeners</pro> do. | gardener | plant worker | 39r |
<tl><pro>dyers</pro>’ vat</tl>, and to fill a <tl>vat</tl> with it, one | dyer | Painters | 39r |
fashion of <pro>glassworkers</pro>, who wash their <m>glass pane</m> with | glass worker | Glass Workers | 39v |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, <m>gild</m> your entire <m>glass pane</m> with | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 39v |
being pressed by <pro>vintagers</pro>, but it does not keep, & | vintager | plant worker | 40r |
which the <pro>painters</pro> use, but a thicker kind, which is | painter | Painters | 40v |
burnished by <pro>those who make <m>gemstone foils</m></pro> | gemstone maker | Stone Workers | 40v |
<del><fr>Av</fr></del> or by <pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & that gives it | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 40v |
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do not melt <m>latten</m> in a | founder | Metal Workers | 40v |
<head><m>Earth for casting, for <pro>founders</pro></m></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 41r |
<ab>If the <pro>shearer</pro> sometimes wounds them, he puts | shearer | animal workers | 41v |
<comment rid=“c_041v_01”/>If the <pro>shearer</pro> wants to | shearer | animal workers | 41v |
<head><pro>Arquebusier</pro></head> | arquebusier | Gun Workers | 43v |
<head><pro>Pewterer</pro></head> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 44r |
masters</pro></env>. But elsewhere, they add as much as they can. One | master | Metal Workers | 44r |
that <pro>coppersmiths</pro> make</m>. This makes the plate more | coppersmith | Metal Workers | 44r |
<ab>If the <pro>scribe</pro> wants to clean his <tl>quill</tl> promptly | scribe | Paper Workers | 46v |
<head><pro>Shoemaker</pro></head> | shoe maker | Textile Workers | 46v |
<tl>those for <pro>glassmakers</pro></tl>, as <m>glass</m> is not as | glass maker | Glass Workers | 47v |
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 48r |
<del>One</del> <pro>Pewterers</pro> put in <del>on the <m>fine | pewterer | Metal Workers | 48v |
by the <pro>pewterers</pro> to sell it better. <del><fr>O</fr></del> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 48v |
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=“c_032v_01”/> One says | pewterer | Metal Workers | 49r |
They cast with <m>solder</m> that <del><pro>pewterers</pro></del> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 49r |
<add><pro>glassworkers</pro></add> use. </ab> | glass worker | Glass Workers | 49r |
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head> | pewterer | Metal Workers | 49r |
<ab>The <m>steel</m> that <pro>farriers</pro> & <pro><m>iron</m> | farrier | animal workers | 50v |
workers</pro> commonly use is not refined like that from | workers | Metal Workers | 50v |
comes from the <env>mine</env>. And the <pro>workers</pro> choose it | workers | Metal Workers | 50v |
<head><pro>Cutters of <tl>printing plates</tl></pro></head> | printing plate cutter | Metal Workers | 51r |
<ab>which is different from that of the <pro>printers</pro>, one needs | printer | Paper Workers | 51v |
of the <pro>worker</pro> is <del>to it</del> to use the heat of its | worker | animal workers | 52r |
<pro>merchants</pro> bring there is considered the best because the | merchant | Merchants | 53v |
<head><comment rid=“c_057v_01”/><pro>Sheath maker</pro></head> | sheath maker | Textile Workers | 57v |
<ab><pro>Sheath makers</pro> use <m>small, very delicate skins of | sheath maker | Textile Workers | 57v |
<pro>tanners</pro> do. And this <m>dye</m>, being astringent, makes the | tanner | Textile Workers | 57v |
<head><underline><pro>Painter</pro></underline><comment rid=“c_057v_04”/></head> | painter | Painters | 57v |
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panels | painter | Painters | 60r |
this reason, <pro>painters</pro> use it to clean their <tl><m>oil</m> | painter | Painters | 60v |
them. Also, <pro>painters</pro>, sometimes envious of the work | painter | Painters | 60v |
<pro>illuminators</pro>, and grind their colors very finely, protect | illuminator | Painters | 60v |
<head><m>Water</m> to give light for the <pro>painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 61v |
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on flesh | painter | Painters | 63r |
The <pro>painter</pro> also teaches himself with the <tl>mirror</tl>, | painter | Painters | 65r |
<pro>Illuminators</pro> painting on <m>paper</m> temper their colors | illuminator | Painters | 65v |
<pro>Painters</pro> must all learn how to depict after nature, for to them | painter | Painters | 65v |
supports <m>oil</m>. It is with this that <pro>painters</pro> trick the | painter | Painters | 67r |
by <pro>locksmiths</pro> for their rough work are only made of | locksmith | Metal Workers | 67v |
<m>steel</m>. <pro>Founders</pro> whose work is to repair <m>latten</m> | founder | Metal Workers | 67v |
that <pro>painters</pro> use</m>. It releases very neatly, does not want | painter | Painters | 68r |
the <del><fr>p</fr></del><comment rid=“c_068v_01”/> colors that the <pro>painters</pro> grind for <m>oil</m>. This one, once dry, you can | painter | Painters | 68v |
burnished in little wheels that <pro>pewterers</pro> sell, comes out | pewterer | Metal Workers | 68v |
<head><pro>Joiner</pro></head> | joiner | Wood Workers | 69r |
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grinds | molder | Molders | 69r |
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do cast <tl>frames</tl> up to 30 or 40 <ms>lb</ms>, | founder | Metal Workers | 69v |
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from this | common people | Common People | 71v |
<pro>cutlers</pro></m>, because it is only <m>sludge</m>, but rather those | cutler | Stone Workers | 71v |
Some, such as <pro>printers</pro>, mix <m>iron or pin filings</m> | printer | Paper Workers | 72v |
<ab><pro>Founders</pro>, to make the handles of their bells, use it. And | founder | Metal Workers | 77r |
<pro>pewterers</pro> use to make plate, which is composed of 9 or | pewterer | Metal Workers | 79v |
<pro>potters</pro> make a whitening on pots</m> to make <m>lead</m> run | potter | potter | 81r |
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head> | clockmaker | clock makers | 82r |
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head> | clockmaker | clock makers | 82v |
<m><tl>lute</tl></m> it as you know <pro>founders</pro> do. And also, one ought | founder | Metal Workers | 82v |
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head> | founder | Metal Workers | 85v |
<ab>Some <emph><pro>founders</pro></emph> have this superstition, | founder | Metal Workers | 87r |
<ab><emph><pro>Founders</pro></emph>, in order to prevent their large cast | founder | Metal Workers | 87r |
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> take the <m>roots of a young <pa>elm</pa></m> | founder | Metal Workers | 87v |
<head><pro>Baker</pro></head> | baker | Food Workers | 88r |
<pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> &, who for profit, do not | artisan | Stone Workers | 88v |
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=“c_090r_01”/> | molder | Molders | 90r |
<ab><pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> & who need to further | artisan | Stone Workers | 90r |
<pro>artisans</pro> willingly gather. And thus, if they do | artisan | Stone Workers | 90r |
<pro>painters</pro> bring their <tl>palette</tl> to the | painter | Painters | 93v |
<pro>grocers</pro>, & temper & alloy it with a little white | grocer | Painters | 93v |
<ab><pro>Those who create <wp>sword guards</wp></pro> are <pro>artisans</pro> | sword guard maker | Metal Workers | 94v |
<ab>The <pro>furbisher</pro> buys his blades by the <ms>dozen</ms>, which | furbisher | Metal Workers | 95r |
<ab>The first thing the <pro>furbisher</pro> does when he gets his new | furbisher | Metal Workers | 95r |
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him some | locksmith | Metal Workers | 95r |
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him some | farrier | Metal Workers | 95r |
<ab>The <pro>furbishers</pro> buy them by <ms>dozens</ms>, the | furbisher | Metal Workers | 95v |
<ab>Then the <pro>furbisher</pro> puts them on a small bench, called a | furbisher | Metal Workers | 95v |
scabbard to be well made. It is true that for <pro>common people</pro>, | common people | Common People | 96r |
<tl><pro>furbishers</pro>’ furnace</tl>, without them touching the | furbisher | Metal Workers | 96v |
<head><pro>Locksmith</pro></head> | locksmith | Metal Workers | 98r |
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in the | leadsmith | Metal Workers | 98r |
<m>leaded</m> or vitrified. I believe that <pro>glassmakers</pro> could | glass maker | Glass Workers | 99r |
& some & the <pro>common people</pro> put in | common people | Common People | 100v |
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkali | glass maker | Glass Workers | 100v |
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkali | apothecary | Alchemists | 100v |
In this way, the <pro>common people</pro> make <m>emeralds</m> & cast in | common people | Common People | 100v |
<pro>gunpowder maker</pro> who had almost completely burnt himself | gunpowder maker | Gun Workers | 103r |
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head> | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 104v |
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head> | painter | Painters | 105r |
<head><pro>Fountain maker</pro></head> | fountain maker | Stone Workers | 105v |
water</env>, which <pro><al>crayfish</al> catchers</pro> | crayfish catcher | animal workers | 107r |
them</pro> did not take this into account, & assured me that there | molder | Molders | 110r |
stick which <pro>pastry makers</pro></tl> use, which should be a little | pastry maker | Food Workers | 112v |
water</m> that <pro>women</pro> use to make their <m>starch</m>. For | women | Common People | 113v |
<m>Sublimate</m> is commonly employed by <pro>goldsmiths</pro> for | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 120r |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>use</del> <add>use</add> to work | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 120v |
The <m>sand with which <pro>goldsmiths</pro> buff <m>enamels</m> or the | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 121r |
white one that <pro>glassmakers</pro> use</m>, & <m>any lean sand that does | glass maker | Glass Workers | 121r |
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaid | peasant | Common People | 121v |
waste which <pro>founders</pro> use to cast their <wp>cannons</wp></m>, or any | founder | Metal Workers | 121v |
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> who have knowledge of this substance sell a | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 123r |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & especially to <pro>those who work in plate | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 123r |
furnace</tl>. So that when <pro>goldsmiths</pro> want to cast some | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 124v |
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or from | workers | Metal Workers | 125r |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> do not put any in, nevertheless it is good, and I have | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 128v |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quick | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 128v |
color you want. This is the <m>wax</m> <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use for | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 133r |
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths</pro> scrape <m>gold leaf</m> with the <tl>brim of a burin</tl>, | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 136r |
you cast it. <pro>Casters</pro> do not usually take that <m>very yellow | caster | Molders | 136v |
work of the <pro>founder</pro>, for one only needs a <env><po>spring</po> of | founder | Metal Workers | 137r |
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have something to <m>solder</m> promptly | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 138v |
<head><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl></head> | molder | Molders | 143r |
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it, | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 149r |
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths who work in large wares and plate</pro> get whatever | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 149v |
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=“c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrong | molder | Molders | 151r |
Some <pro>goldsmiths</pro> assay it on <m>gold, thinly beaten | goldsmith | Metal Workers | 157r |
<ab>As <pro>small peddlers</pro> lay open small wares in order to buy | peddler | Common People | 162r |
secrets from my benevolent <pro>readers</pro>.<hr/></ab> | Common People | 162r | |
<head><pro>Perfumer</pro></head> | perfumer | Perfumer | 163r |
If something is omitted: the <pro>harvester</pro> is not reproached for | harvester | Food Workers | 166r |
<ab>If any <pro>artisans</pro> complain | artisan | Common People | 166r |
Appendix 4: Descriptions of profession categories
Profession Category | Description |
---|---|
Metal Workers | Those whose work primarily involves metal, such as goldsmiths and founders |
Painters | Painters |
Glass Workers | Those whose work primarily involves glass, directly referenced to as glass workers in the manuscript |
Common People | In reference to a daily life practice not specially tied to a profession, such as something peasants like to eat |
Stone Workers | Those whose work primarily involves stone, such as stone cutters |
Gun Makers | Those involved in any part of the gun making process |
Molders | Molders |
Wood Workers | Those whose work primarily involves wood, such as joiners |
Merchants | Merchants |
Paper Makers | Those whose work primarily involves paper, such as scribes and printers |
Animal Workers | Those whose work primarily involves animals, such as shearers |
Textile Workers | Those whose work primarily involves textiles, such as shoe makers |
Alchemists | Those specially referenced to as alchemists as well as apothecary workers |
Plant Workers | Those whose work primarily involves plants, such as gardeners |
Food Makers | Those involved in making food, such as bakers |
Field Workers | Those whose work is primarily tied to fields, such as plowman and harvesters |
Clock Makers | Those involved in any part of the clock making process, specifically referenced to as clock makers |
Potters | Potters |
Perfumers | Perfumers |
Appendix 5: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the place tag
Description | folio | Label | Category |
---|---|---|---|
the <pl>Faubourg Saint-Germain</pl>,<comment rid=“c_001r_76”/> knows of the | 001r | Faubourg Saint-Germain | France |
<pa><fr><oc>pomole</oc></fr></pa><comment rid=“c_009r_01”/> in <pl>Gascony</pl> or | 009r | Gascony | France |
<pa><fr>baillard</fr></pa> in <pl>France</pl>,<comment rid=“c_009r_02”/> makes the earth shake seven <tmp>years</tmp> later, | 009r | France | France |
<ab>It is made in <pl>Lyon</pl> from the <m>juice of weld</m> & | 010r | lyon | France |
who make it in <pl>Germany</pl> compound it like <m>enamel</m>, in large | 011r | Germany | Germany |
one from the region of <pl>Albi</pl> is whiter. It must be cooked with a | 012r | albi | France |
<pl>Montauban</pl> make, it is necessary to snuff it out often, for | 016v | montauban | France |
<ab><m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is smoother & more even than | 020r | lorraine | France |
<m>drugs</m> that the <pro>glassworkers</pro> put on. <m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is sold by the <ms>bundle</ms><comment rid=“c_020r_04”/> & each | 020r | lorraine | France |
<pl>Toulouse</pl> named Cardaillac<comment rid=“c_020v_02”/> as one of the most beautiful in | 020v | toulouse | France |
<pl>France</pl>, all the more since it weighs two hundred and fifty | 020v | France | France |
Know the magazines of <pl>France</pl> for the | 024v | France | France |
is 8 <ms><pl>Montpellier</pl> <fr>pans</fr></ms></head> | 027v | montpellier | France |
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put in | 028v | England | England |
makes ceiling ornaments with it in <pl>Rome</pl>. One can make bed | 029r | rome | Italy |
<ab>As soon as the colors of panels are well dried, the <pl>Flemish</pl> | 032r | flemish | Flanders |
<ab>They make two kinds of them in <pl>Toulouse</pl>, one to hang on the | 032v | toulouse | France |
why <m>solder</m> is made with it. In <pl>Germany</pl> they make very | 032v | Germany | Germany |
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> | 036v | lorraine | France |
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl> | 036v | Flanders | Flanders |
It is made in the same way in <pl>England</pl> more beautifully. | 036v | England | England |
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with | 036v | rouen | France |
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with | 036v | rouen | France |
salt</m></tl> over it, which an <pl>Englishman</pl> called | 037v | english | England |
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with | 044v | coustance | France |
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with | 044v | coustance | France |
xxx <ms><cn>sous</cn></ms>. They bring them to <pl>Toulouse</pl> to | 044v | toulouse | France |
transport them afterward to <pl>Spain</pl>, and take <m>silk tammy</m> | 044v | Spain | Spain |
<ab>Those from <pl>Bayonne</pl>, which seem to be made of | 047r | bayonne | France |
reduce to a mass. The <pl>Germans</pl> make their <tl>files</tl> from | 050v | germans | Germany |
<head>The work done in <pl>Algiers</pl></head> | 052r | algiers | Algeria |
& make more <m>silk</m>. In <pl>Spain</pl>, from one <ms>ounce</ms> of | 053v | Spain | Spain |
The <pl>Italians</pl> soften by hatching with a large flattened | 056v | italians | Italy |
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> do not use any whites for flesh colors in | 057v | flemish | Flanders |
well. <comment rid=“c_059r_01”/>The <pl>Italians</pl> commonly make three shadows, the first one, | 059r | italians | Italy |
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panels | 060r | flemish | Flanders |
<head>Work of the <pl>Flemish</pl></head> | 060v | flemish | Flanders |
<head><tl>Frames</tl><comment rid=“c_061v_02”/> of the <pl>Germans</pl> </head> | 061v | germans | Germany |
<ab><pl>Germans</pl> who work in miniature make <tl>frames</tl> not of | 061v | germans | Germany |
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> use <m>lead from <pl>Flanders</pl></m> because | 063r | germans | Germany |
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on flesh | 063r | germans | Germany |
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> & those who paint panels by the dozen only | 066r | flemish | Flanders |
a little thick, but in <pl>France</pl><lb/> | 066r | France | France |
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> give a layer of <m>distemper glue</m> | 066r | flemish | Flanders |
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make boxes <del><fr>p</fr></del> covered with painted | 067r | germans | Germany |
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grinds | 069r | toulouse | France |
The <pl>English</pl>, when they feel a cold coming on, mull <m>wine</m> in this | 071r | english | England |
The common <pl>English</pl> put <m>sugar</m> in <m>wine</m> to affect | 071r | english | England |
<ab>The <pl>Irish</pl> do not drink any <m>wine</m> because they convert | 071r | irish | Ireland |
<ab>In a certain region of <pl>England</pl>, the <al>sheep</al> that | 071v | England | England |
<ab>In <pl>Ireland</pl>, there are none, & if one touches them | 071v | Ireland | Ireland |
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from this | 071v | England | England |
<ab render=“wide”>The <pl>Germans</pl> cast their <m>leads</m> very thinly, because it seems | 072v | germans | Germany |
<pl>Fosseret</pl><comment rid=“c_081r_02”/> & in another place | 081r | fosseret | France |
called <pl>Ox</pl>.<comment rid=“c_081r_03”/></ab> | 081r | ox | France |
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> reglue their <tl><m>earthen</m> pots</tl> with | 085r | flemish | Flanders |
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=“c_090r_01”/> | 090r | foix | France |
<ab>In <pl>Italy</pl>, those who are in the colder regions, like | 090v | Italy | Italy |
<pl>Lombardy</pl>, make <tl>square wooden cases</tl>, a little larger at | 090v | lombardy | Italy |
The <pl>Italians</pl> scarcely varnish their paintings because they layer | 097v | italians | Italy |
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make <m>minium</m> boil well in | 101v | germans | Germany |
flesh color. And as for the ground, they make it with <m><fr>azur d’<pl>Acre</pl></fr></m> | 102v | colchis | Algeria |
<ab>The <pl>English</pl>, who caress their d<al>ogs</al> a lot for | 103r | english | England |
that the <pl>Italians</pl> put in, because one often has to put the | 109r | italians | Italy |
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or from | 125r | damascus | syria |
<pl>Hungary</pl>, neighbors to the <pl>Turks</pl>, separate, in the | 125r | hungary | hungary |
<pl>Germans</pl>, and that such an alloy readily makes a film | 128v | germans | Germany |
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quick | 128v | France | France |
have seen an excellent <pl>German</pl> working thus. Having in my | 128v | german | Germany |
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del> | 136v | german | Germany |
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it, | 149r | Germany | Germany |
<m>white salt</m>. <pl>Germans</pl> make statues for their <env>fountains</env> | 159v | germans | Germany |
<ab>In <pl>Spain</pl>, one lays them bare at the roots <ms><tmp>during | 162v | Spain | Spain |
others from <pl>Tyana</pl> learned by their travels the disciplines of which they called themselves <pro>inventors</pro> | 166r | tyana | Turkey |
“BnF Ms. Fr. 640 – Making and Knowing Project,” Accessed December 20, 2021, https://www.makingandknowing.org/bnf-ms-fr-640/. ↩︎
Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 3. ↩︎
Vansina, Oral Tradition as History, 3. ↩︎
U. Kalpagam, “Oral History: Reconstructing Women’s Role.” Economic and Political Weekly 21, no. 38/39 (1986): 1683. ↩︎
Pertti Anttonen, Cecilia af Forselles, and Kirsti Salmi-Niklander, eds. Oral Tradition and Book Culture. Studia Fennica, Folkloristica 24. (Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society), 2018), 7-8. ↩︎
Celine Camps and Margot Lyautey, “Ma<r>king and Knowing: Encoding BnF Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/CJHD-WH90. ↩︎
Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript: Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848. ↩︎
Aaron J. Gurevich and Ann Shukman. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘Peasant Visions’ of the Late Twelfth-Early Thirteenth Centuries.” New Literary History 16, no. 1 (1984): 51–66. https://doi.org/10.2307/468775. ↩︎
William Beik, A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 21. ↩︎
“The Food of Shakespeare’s World,” Folger Shakespeare Library, last modified July 26, 2016. [https://www.folger.edu/shakespeare-unlimited/food-wendy-wall]. ↩︎
Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript:Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848. ↩︎
Joslyn DeVinney, “Smoke as Medicine,” 2016, https://www.doi.org/10.7916/kfja-0v86. ↩︎
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