Oral Culture in Ms. Fr. 640

Hana Ghoneima

Making and Knowing Project, Fall 2021

BnF Ms. Fr. 640 stands at the intersection of a pivotal moment in history, in which craftspeople who were previously illiterate began recording their procedures and trade in writing.1 Within this context, Ms. Fr. 640 is an illuminating document not only for its content on craft techniques, but for the historical milestones and trends it embodies. One of those is oral culture, and its intersection with the written one. Oral culture is defined as a form of communication in which knowledge is transmitted orally from one person to another. According to the historian Jan Vansina, within oral culture “there must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation.”2 Importantly, oral culture can be interpreted as “Any situation in which people speak generates messages, some of which may be repeated and hence start a process of transmission,” and it includes both the process of oral transmission itself as well as its products.3 Similarly, oral culture can also be thought of as “a reconstruction of the past from oral sources…which will throw light on the particular aspect of social life under study.”4 As such, oral culture is understood as the shared transmission of vernacular experience, and is an important tool for the study of historical eras in which masses were largely illiterate and access to written work limited.

Despite the seeming contrast between oral and written sources, there is significant scholarly interest in the importance of handwritten and printed knowledge within oral culture. In fact, oral culture cannot be evaluated independently of written tradition, and the intersection of the two sheds light on topics such as authenticity and representation. According to Susan Stewart, “when oral forms are transformed into ‘evidence’ and ‘artefacts,’ they acquire all the characteristics of fragmentation, symbolic meaning, and literariness that are most valued by the literary culture.”5 In this light, studying the written material of BnF Ms. Fr. 640 is an important tool for understanding the oral transmission of craft knowledge and production techniques passed over generations.

As such, the purpose of this project is to locate traces of oral culture that are dispersed throughout Ms. Fr. 640. For the purpose of this project, oral culture was defined as any instance in which the author-practitioner referenced or implied that the knowledge he is writing of has been acquired from another person or place via hearing or something that is said. An example of this is in fol. 36v: “One says that in Lorraine & in Flanders well-made glass is made of fern ashes & pebbles…” Distinct here is his specific reference to having acquired this knowledge through other people’s talk. This is in contrast to instances in which he cites books or references written knowledge, such as in fol. 162r, in which he explains information about the Phoenecians acquired from Herodotus’ Clio. Below, I will lay out the methodology and results of different approaches I took to evaluating this issue.

References to “Say” and “Said”

Using the search functionality of Oxygen XML Editor, I compiled lists of all the times the author-practitioner used the words “say,” “said,” “hear,” or “heard” throughout the English translation of the Ms. Fr. 640. Then, I manually went through each entry on the list and cross-referenced them with their locations in the manuscript to check for instances where the author-practitioner is specifically referencing knowledge that is said/heard by another person. For example, on fol. 21v, he writes that “Some say that one should remove…” and in fol. 43v he writes that “It is said that pulverized talc…” These instances show direct examples where the author-practitioner is writing down things that he heard from elsewhere, including facts, techniques, and opinions of others. With the word “say,” of the 103 total times the word was used, 32% (n=33) specifically reference something that another person said and that the author-practitioner is now recording (Fig. 1). The word “said” was used 198 times, of which 8.6% (n=17) specifically reference something which another person said (Fig. 2). However, there were no instances of this with the words “hear” and “heard.”

Chart

Fig 1. Percentage of entries using the word “say” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

Chart

Fig 2. Percentage of entries using the word “said” which reference oral transmission (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

  • For a look at all collected data involving the word “say,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.

  • For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say,” please refer to Appendix 1 .

  • For a look at all collected data involving the word “said,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.

  • For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say,” please refer to Appendix 2.

Orally Transmitted Knowledge Across Professions and Places

To investigate the presence of oral culture through a different lens, I went through the profession (“pro”) and place (“pl”) tags within Ms. Fr. 640. These editorial tags are encoded within the digital manuscript to describe certain words, phrases, and features of the text.6 The “pro” tag denotes instances where the author-practitioner references another recognized trade, such as a painter, while the “pl” tag highlights specific places that are mentioned in the text, such as France. In my initial search within the manuscript, I found that there were several instances where the author-practitioner references things he has heard or is aware that another profession or people from another place do. For example, in fol. 29v, he says: “Apothecaries say that anything which does not adhere to …” denoting that he is writing down something which he heard from apothecaries, while in fol. 136v he explains that “Some say that German tokens are …” As such, using Oxygen, I compiled a list of all the “pro” and “pl” tags within the manuscript. This resulted in a list of 366 “pro” tags and 266 “pl” tags. I manually went through each tag and sorted the list of results according to whether the author was actually referencing the way something is done or just casually referring to a place/profession. For example, a ‘yes’ would be the author-practitioner’s description of how glass is made in France while a ’no’ would be Venice turpentine, which is not actually referencing the place but is the given name of the material. Below are the initial graphs showing percentages of the number of tags actually referencing another place or profession in the context of how something is done versus tags that are not. Within the profession tag, 50.1% (n=183) specifically reference transmittable knowledge regarding the way another profession does something, while 49.9% (n=182) do not (Fig. 3). Within the place tag, 27.8% (n=74) referenced the author-practitioner’s knowledge regarding the way something is done in another location, while 72.2% (n=192) do not. Entries labeled ‘no’ are usually general discussions of the profession/place or other miscellaneous uses (Fig. 4).

Chart

Fig 3. Percentage of entries tagged with “pro” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

Chart

Fig 4. Percentage of entries tagged with “pl” which show evidence of oral transmission of knowledge (‘yes’) versus those which do not (‘no’).

These results give an initial look at the presence of oral culture within the manuscript. Within these tags, the author-practitioner mentions techniques and recipes done in other places or by other professions. Often, he specifically includes that he heard this information, making it clear that it’s orally transmitted, while other times he is more ambiguous about where he acquired the information from. As such, one limitation of this textual analysis is that contextual examination of the surrounding text has to be done to best interpret the author-practitioner’s meaning and determine the source of the information he is writing of. Nevertheless, in all of these instances, he is describing a technique done by another profession or place and physically recording this information into a literary form, and thus contributing to the trend of transcribing the practices of his field that have scarcely been recorded before. Further, none of the instances where he is less explicit about hearing the information include a citation or reference to another text or written work, making it likely that he is transcribing knowledge that he acquired not from another text but rather through the transmission of knowledge via oral methods or experience.7

Within the tags that were categorized as ‘yes’ for indicating a specific reference to how something is done in another place or profession, I broke down the categories according to the specific place/profession mentioned (Fig. 5-6).

Chart

Fig 5. Breakdown of all places mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge.

Chart

Fig 6. Breakdown of all professions mentioned which included reference of oral transmission of knowledge. For a description of all the profession categories, please refer to Appendix 4.

  • For a look at all collected data involving the tag “pro” please refer to the following spreadsheet.

  • For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the tag “pro,” please refer to Appendix 3.

  • For a description of all the profession categories, please refer to Appendix 4.

  • For a look at all collected data involving the tag “pl,” please refer to the following spreadsheet.

  • For a list of all instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the tag “pl,” please refer to Appendix 5.

Women and Peasants Within the Oral Culture of Ms. Fr. 640

Oral culture was heavily propagated by women and lower-class members of society. In fact, at the time of the manuscript, books and other written documents were still largely connected to the upper and elite classes. As such, women and peasants, many of whom were illiterate, relied on transmission of knowledge through vernacular modes.8 At the same time, these groups of people were also highly involved in the handiwork of the time. For example, fields were predominantly worked by the lower classes, and French peasants were hired by merchants to process harvested grains for importation to urban artisans.9 As such, it is likely that peasants held wide-ranging knowledge about various skills and practices, many of which would have been transferred through experience and word of mouth. Yet, in Ms. Fr. 640, there are only two explicit references to techniques employed by peasants. On fol. 67r, the author-practitioner mentions that peasants used taffeta to make banners, while on fol. 121v he mentions the type of bowls which peasants eat their soup from.

Similarly, women were highly involved in many of the practices described in Ms. Fr. 640, including gardening and food storage and preparation, meaning they were also very knowledgeable in the cultivation and uses of a variety of plants.10 Women were also commonly responsible for the creation of medicine, and many of these recipes were collected by the women and traded via networks of oral transmission.11 Yet, despite this, women have very little presence within Ms. Fr. 640, and none of the medicinal recipes included are linked to women. In fact, of the seven mentions of women in the manuscript, only brief references are included to techniques or recipes employed by them. On fol. 58r, the author-practitioner mentions that “ladies, wanting to color their cheeks, grind Florence lake very finely, then fill a little cotton with it, which they next wrap in a little fabric of Cambray which is clear. And thus they pounce the lake on their cheeks & then, with another clean cotton, they soften it.” On fol. 113v, we get a reference that women make starch water, giving us subtle insights into their working lives. Albeit brief, the references to peasants and women serve the dual purpose of confirming the presence of both groups in the production processes of the time, while also highlighting the way in which they were frequently overlooked in the written traditions that were emerging.

Conclusion

Although the author-practitioner does not often describe where he acquired his recipes from, he offers wide-ranging clues to the importance of oral culture to the acquisition of the knowledge he describes. For example, many of the medicinal recipes he recounts include a place of origin. Given that it’s highly unlikely that the author-practitioner visited those places, it is probable that he acquired this information orally from others, such as artisans or travelers.12 Sometimes, he is more explicit about how he came about his knowledge, and he often states that he learned of a technique or recipe from a place or a specific profession.13 For example, when describing a salve for burns in fol. 103r, he details that “A gunpowder maker who had almost completely burnt himself & showed no sign of the burn, taught me this,” further suggesting that the efficacy of this recipe is tied to the vernacular mode and first-hand nature of its acquisition. This method of knowledge gathering is a pattern frequently found throughout the manuscript, and in this way, Ms. Fr. 640 elucidates the ways in which the advent of written texts and recorded recipes made long term changes within the field of artisanal craftsmanship, which had traditionally been passed down through word of mouth and in apprenticeships. The significance of this synergy of the oral with the written is that it is self-perpetuating: the author-practitioner records his knowledge of recipes and then builds upon them with his own experience and experimentation. These documents can then spread to others, who can relate their own experiences to the new written frameworks of craftsmanship and contribute to the further sustenance of the knowledge. Interestingly, while the manuscript provides insight into this oral transmission of recipes, it also serves another function by highlighting gaps in the records of its history, such as the role of women and peasants in the transmission of said recipes.

All in all, the folios contained within Ms. Fr. 640 possess immense value in being the manifestations of real-time circulation of artisanal knowledge and technique. This spread of knowledge, as facilitated by print culture, not only exchanged with older forms of oral traditions, but brought these traditions to the forefront, ushering in a new era for the exchange and recording of work.

Bibliography

Anttonen, Pertti, Cecilia af Forselles, and Kirsti Salmi-Niklander, eds. Oral Tradition and Book Culture. Studia Fennica, Folkloristica 24. Helsinki: FinnishLiterature Society (SKS), 2018.

Beik, William. A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Camps, Celine and Margot Lyautey. “Ma<r>king and Knowing: Encoding BnF Ms. Fr. 640.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_335_ie_19.DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/cjhd-wh90.

DeVinney, Joslyn. “Smoke as Medicine.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_048_fa_16. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/kfja-0v86.

Folger Shakespeare Library. “The Food of Shakespeare’s World.” Last modified July 26, 2016. [https://www.folger.edu/shakespeare-unlimited/food-wendy-wall].

Gans, Sofia. “Circulation of Knowledge in Europe.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_018_sp_15. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/6zzw-s813

Gurevich, Aaron J. and Ann Shukman. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘Peasant Visions’ of the Late Twelfth-Early Thirteenth Centuries.” New Literary History 16, no. 1 (1984): 51–66.

Kalpagam, U. “Oral History: Reconstructing Women’s Role.” Economic and Political Weekly 21, no. 38/39 (1986): 1683–87.

Liu, Xiaomeng. “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript: Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project, 2020. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_057_sp_17. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.7916/wq5p-p848

Making and Knowing Project. “BnF Ms. Fr. 640 – Making and Knowing Project.” Accessed December 20, 2021. https://www.makingandknowing.org/bnf-ms-fr-640/.

Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.

Appendix 1: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “say”

Descriptionfolio
Some say it is not good to distil in this <tl><m>copper</m>003v
according to the common saying. <pa>Beans</pa>009r
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro>012v
that is lost, others say that it is <m>refired enamel</m>. And by means012v
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying013v
all in one go but in two & ramming each time, saying that each018r
<head>Common saying</head>020v
<ab>Some say that one should remove the ball if the <wp>cannon</wp> is loaded021v
wall, some say, <del>for</del> that is, as if at an025r
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere to029v
to a certain place and back, he cannot say boot without spur four times034r
<ab><mark>X</mark> If he tries to say<del><fr>a</fr></del><comment rid=“c_034r_04”/> it,034r
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl>036v
<ab>One says that rarely a tree planted on <tmp><pn>St. Paul</pn>’s038v
<m>aquafortis</m>; however, one says that <md>this corrupts them046r
afterward & causes a blackness on them</md>. One says that <m>oil of046r
in a piece of <m><al>beef</al></m>, then boiled, rejoins them, as they say.047r
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=“c_032v_01”/> One says049r
opening the beak, one would say that they are.<comment rid=“c_049v_05”/>049v
that it does not want for such food (some say one <m>egg yolk</m> per052r
say the same for <m>finely pulverized tripoli</m> that does not want to068v
<ab render=“wide”><emph>The <m>blackest lead</m></emph>, so some say, is the best & the softest072v
those who plant the large feet against a slope say that it makes a088r
neatly, it will also behave well with <m>copper</m>. Some say that the088v
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in the098r
one says, for <ms>℥</ms>, this is to be understood: on100v
Some say that, mixing the <m>gold</m> with the <m>pebbles</m> and the100v
Others say that it is necessary that the <m>gold</m> be cemented several100v
<pa><fr>mericoton</fr> peaches</pa>, are grafted in clefts. One says105v
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del>136v
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=“c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrong151r
says that the <pl>Phoenicians</pl> would come from the <pl>Red Sea</pl>162r
royal prophet says, <del><la><bp>Manus</bp> meae</la></del>166v

Appendix 2: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the word “said”

Descriptionfolio
<ab>It is said that if one calls a <al>snake</al> in Greek, saying013v
was said, & continues thus until the wall is complete,014r
end of the aforesaid <tl>ruler</tl>. Next, they measure with a021v
need, they tighten the said wedges, wedging them with the030v
<m>sanguine</m>, as is said elsewhere, the black & gray &037v
<ab>One finds <m>sapphires</m> that one calls <df>of the trellis</df>, because they are pierced and it is said that a038r
<m>wool</m>, and if it dyes fifteen times, it is said to be fifteen039r
<ab>It is said that <m>pulverized talc</m> blown into with a <tl>lamp</tl>043v
<del><fr>on</fr></del> is said. Some spin among the leaves & make054r
Try <m>calcined <al>oyster</al> shells</m>. They are said to be080v
other pieces, saying that the said <m>glair</m> makes it come out085v
<ab>It is said, at the beginning of the book<comment rid=“c_097r_02”/>097r
third time with the doubled <m>foil</m>, as has been said, then burnish them097r
<tl>molds</tl>, as said, then they cast it in <m>wax</m>. In that way116v
they cast them in <m>metal</m>, as is said.</ab>116v
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaid121v
black & no longer <m>smoked</m>. Then, he wetted the aforesaid <m>tartar</m>128v

Appendix 3: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the profession tag

DescriptionLabelCategoryfolio
promptly dry. <pro>Frame makers</pro>, to avoid the trouble of polishingframe makerWood Workers4r
their <m>ebony</m>, varnish it with this, as do <pro><mu>guitar</mu> makers</pro>.guitar makerWood Workers4r
<tl>file</tl>. <pro>Glass button makers</pro> also avail themselves ofglass makerGlass Workers6v
being <m>salted</m>. <pro>Joiners</pro> <m>glue</m> their masterpiecesjoinerWood Workers7r
with it and <pro><mu>guitar</mu> maker<ill/></pro> use it for delicate works.guitar makerWood Workers7r
<head>M<del><ill/></del>ixture of <pro>Pewterers</pro></head>pewtererMetal Workers8v
<head><pro>Plowman</pro></head>plowmanField Workers9r
<pro>harvesters</pro> beat it most often <tmp>at night <env>in the coolharvesterField Workers9r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head>painterPainters9r
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head>merchantMerchants9r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head>painterPainters9v
<head><pro>Merchant</pro></head>merchantMerchants9v
<ab><comment rid=“c_009v_03”/>The rule that <pro>merchants</pro> are accustomed to keep in theirmerchantMerchants9v
<ab><pro>Painters</pro> make it beautiful, making the first ground ofpainterPainters10r
<pro><oc>furbishers</oc></pro> to make a seatfurbisherMetal Workers11v
is natural, others say that it is a secret of <pro>ancient lapidaries</pro>lapidariesStone Workers12v
<tl><pro>goldsmith</pro>’s forge</tl> with three or four smallgoldsmithMetal Workers12v
<pro>gunpowder makers</pro> profit from them.</ab>gunpowder makerGun Workers14r
<ab render=“wide”>Most <pro>people</pro> consider that <m>iron</m>, once melted,peopleCommon People16r
forges</tl>, in which it only becomes red-hot. <pro>Alchemists</pro>alchemistAlchemists16r
The <pro>miners</pro>, to make the <m>iron</m> run, put at the mouth ofminerMetal Workers16r
<head>On the <pro>gunner</pro></head>gunnerGun Workers17r
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head>glass workerGlass Workers20r
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head>gunnerGun Workers21r
<head><pro>Gunner</pro></head>gunnerGun Workers25v
one in the middle, one at the mouth. When <pro>founders</pro> want to work on theirfounderMetal Workers25v
But because some <pro>gunners</pro> prefer a <wp>piece</wp> which is weighted at the frontgunnerGun Workers25v
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head>pewtererMetal Workers28v
<env>mine</env>, because the <pro>masters</pro> remelt it <del><fr>a</fr></del> inmetal workerMetal Workers28v
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put inminerMetal Workers28v
Commonly, the <pro>sworn master pewterers</pro> frompewtererMetal Workers28v
tin</m>. The <pro>others, who work in the <env>countryside</env></pro>,workerMetal Workers28v
<ab><pro>Apothecaries</pro> say that anything which does not adhere toapothecaryAlchemists29v
<head><comment rid=“c_030r_02”/><pro>Pewterer</pro></head>pewtererMetal Workers30r
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head>painterPainters31v
<ab><pro>Scribes</pro> achieve darkening of <m>lake</m> & otherscribePaper Workers31v
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head>painterPainters32r
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> makepainterPainters32r
<ab>Common <pro>painters</pro> & <pro>scribes</pro> makepainterPaper Workers32r
<head><pro>Mat maker</pro></head>mat makerTextile Workers32v
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head>glass workerGlass Workers32v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head>founderMetal Workers32v
sold for xxx or 40 <cn>lb</cn>. Another, which <pro>founders</pro> use,founderMetal Workers32v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head>founderMetal Workers36v
true that <pro>foun<del><fr>ables</fr></del><add>ders</add></pro> mix infounderMetal Workers36v
<head><m><pro>Glassworkers</pro>’ glass</m></head>glass workerGlass Workers36v
<pro>worker</pro>, with long shears, cleaves & cuts lengthwise.workerGlass Workers36v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head>founderMetal Workers37r
<head><pro>Gardener</pro></head>gardenerplant worker37v
<head><pro>Glassworker</pro></head>glass workerGlass Workers37v
<pro>glassworker</pro> who is working has a <sn>stench</sn> from hisglass workerGlass Workers37v
certain <pro>king</pro> had made from these a certain ornament in thekingStone Workers38r
<ab><pro>Stone cutters</pro> sometimes choose old pieces of <m>antiquestone cutterStone Workers38r
<head><pro>Merchant</pro><comment rid=“c_038v_02”/></head>merchantMerchants38v
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head>goldsmithMetal Workers39r
This is why, to save money, <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use it to assemble, ingoldsmithMetal Workers39r
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have thus assembled their <m>silvergoldsmithMetal Workers39r
the soil with <tl>shovels of <m>iron</m></tl>, as <pro>gardeners</pro> do.gardenerplant worker39r
<tl><pro>dyers</pro>’ vat</tl>, and to fill a <tl>vat</tl> with it, onedyerPainters39r
fashion of <pro>glassworkers</pro>, who wash their <m>glass pane</m> withglass workerGlass Workers39v
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, <m>gild</m> your entire <m>glass pane</m> withgoldsmithMetal Workers39v
being pressed by <pro>vintagers</pro>, but it does not keep, &vintagerplant worker40r
which the <pro>painters</pro> use, but a thicker kind, which ispainterPainters40v
burnished by <pro>those who make <m>gemstone foils</m></pro>gemstone makerStone Workers40v
<del><fr>Av</fr></del> or by <pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & that gives itgoldsmithMetal Workers40v
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do not melt <m>latten</m> in afounderMetal Workers40v
<head><m>Earth for casting, for <pro>founders</pro></m></head>founderMetal Workers41r
<ab>If the <pro>shearer</pro> sometimes wounds them, he putssheareranimal workers41v
<comment rid=“c_041v_01”/>If the <pro>shearer</pro> wants tosheareranimal workers41v
<head><pro>Arquebusier</pro></head>arquebusierGun Workers43v
<head><pro>Pewterer</pro></head>pewtererMetal Workers44r
masters</pro></env>. But elsewhere, they add as much as they can. OnemasterMetal Workers44r
that <pro>coppersmiths</pro> make</m>. This makes the plate morecoppersmithMetal Workers44r
<ab>If the <pro>scribe</pro> wants to clean his <tl>quill</tl> promptlyscribePaper Workers46v
<head><pro>Shoemaker</pro></head>shoe makerTextile Workers46v
<tl>those for <pro>glassmakers</pro></tl>, as <m>glass</m> is not asglass makerGlass Workers47v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head>founderMetal Workers48r
<del>One</del> <pro>Pewterers</pro> put in <del>on the <m>finepewtererMetal Workers48v
by the <pro>pewterers</pro> to sell it better. <del><fr>O</fr></del>pewtererMetal Workers48v
<pro>Pewterers</pro> cast in a <tl><m>copper</m> mold</tl>.<comment rid=“c_032v_01”/> One sayspewtererMetal Workers49r
They cast with <m>solder</m> that <del><pro>pewterers</pro></del>pewtererMetal Workers49r
<add><pro>glassworkers</pro></add> use. </ab>glass workerGlass Workers49r
<head><pro>Pewterers</pro></head>pewtererMetal Workers49r
<ab>The <m>steel</m> that <pro>farriers</pro> & <pro><m>iron</m>farrieranimal workers50v
workers</pro> commonly use is not refined like that fromworkersMetal Workers50v
comes from the <env>mine</env>. And the <pro>workers</pro> choose itworkersMetal Workers50v
<head><pro>Cutters of <tl>printing plates</tl></pro></head>printing plate cutterMetal Workers51r
<ab>which is different from that of the <pro>printers</pro>, one needsprinterPaper Workers51v
of the <pro>worker</pro> is <del>to it</del> to use the heat of itsworkeranimal workers52r
<pro>merchants</pro> bring there is considered the best because themerchantMerchants53v
<head><comment rid=“c_057v_01”/><pro>Sheath maker</pro></head>sheath makerTextile Workers57v
<ab><pro>Sheath makers</pro> use <m>small, very delicate skins ofsheath makerTextile Workers57v
<pro>tanners</pro> do. And this <m>dye</m>, being astringent, makes thetannerTextile Workers57v
<head><underline><pro>Painter</pro></underline><comment rid=“c_057v_04”/></head>painterPainters57v
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panelspainterPainters60r
this reason, <pro>painters</pro> use it to clean their <tl><m>oil</m>painterPainters60v
them. Also, <pro>painters</pro>, sometimes envious of the workpainterPainters60v
<pro>illuminators</pro>, and grind their colors very finely, protectilluminatorPainters60v
<head><m>Water</m> to give light for the <pro>painter</pro></head>painterPainters61v
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on fleshpainterPainters63r
The <pro>painter</pro> also teaches himself with the <tl>mirror</tl>,painterPainters65r
<pro>Illuminators</pro> painting on <m>paper</m> temper their colorsilluminatorPainters65v
<pro>Painters</pro> must all learn how to depict after nature, for to thempainterPainters65v
supports <m>oil</m>. It is with this that <pro>painters</pro> trick thepainterPainters67r
by <pro>locksmiths</pro> for their rough work are only made oflocksmithMetal Workers67v
<m>steel</m>. <pro>Founders</pro> whose work is to repair <m>latten</m>founderMetal Workers67v
that <pro>painters</pro> use</m>. It releases very neatly, does not wantpainterPainters68r
the <del><fr>p</fr></del><comment rid=“c_068v_01”/> colors that the <pro>painters</pro> grind for <m>oil</m>. This one, once dry, you canpainterPainters68v
burnished in little wheels that <pro>pewterers</pro> sell, comes outpewtererMetal Workers68v
<head><pro>Joiner</pro></head>joinerWood Workers69r
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grindsmolderMolders69r
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> do cast <tl>frames</tl> up to 30 or 40 <ms>lb</ms>,founderMetal Workers69v
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from thiscommon peopleCommon People71v
<pro>cutlers</pro></m>, because it is only <m>sludge</m>, but rather thosecutlerStone Workers71v
Some, such as <pro>printers</pro>, mix <m>iron or pin filings</m>printerPaper Workers72v
<ab><pro>Founders</pro>, to make the handles of their bells, use it. AndfounderMetal Workers77r
<pro>pewterers</pro> use to make plate, which is composed of 9 orpewtererMetal Workers79v
<pro>potters</pro> make a whitening on pots</m> to make <m>lead</m> runpotterpotter81r
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head>clockmakerclock makers82r
<head><pro>Clockmakers</pro></head>clockmakerclock makers82v
<m><tl>lute</tl></m> it as you know <pro>founders</pro> do. And also, one oughtfounderMetal Workers82v
<head><pro>Founder</pro></head>founderMetal Workers85v
<ab>Some <emph><pro>founders</pro></emph> have this superstition,founderMetal Workers87r
<ab><emph><pro>Founders</pro></emph>, in order to prevent their large castfounderMetal Workers87r
<ab><pro>Founders</pro> take the <m>roots of a young <pa>elm</pa></m>founderMetal Workers87v
<head><pro>Baker</pro></head>bakerFood Workers88r
<pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> &, who for profit, do notartisanStone Workers88v
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=“c_090r_01”/>molderMolders90r
<ab><pro>Artisans who work in large works</pro> & who need to furtherartisanStone Workers90r
<pro>artisans</pro> willingly gather. And thus, if they doartisanStone Workers90r
<pro>painters</pro> bring their <tl>palette</tl> to thepainterPainters93v
<pro>grocers</pro>, & temper & alloy it with a little whitegrocerPainters93v
<ab><pro>Those who create <wp>sword guards</wp></pro> are <pro>artisans</pro>sword guard makerMetal Workers94v
<ab>The <pro>furbisher</pro> buys his blades by the <ms>dozen</ms>, whichfurbisherMetal Workers95r
<ab>The first thing the <pro>furbisher</pro> does when he gets his newfurbisherMetal Workers95r
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him somelocksmithMetal Workers95r
<pro>locksmiths</pro> or <pro>farriers</pro>, giving him somefarrierMetal Workers95r
<ab>The <pro>furbishers</pro> buy them by <ms>dozens</ms>, thefurbisherMetal Workers95v
<ab>Then the <pro>furbisher</pro> puts them on a small bench, called afurbisherMetal Workers95v
scabbard to be well made. It is true that for <pro>common people</pro>,common peopleCommon People96r
<tl><pro>furbishers</pro>’ furnace</tl>, without them touching thefurbisherMetal Workers96v
<head><pro>Locksmith</pro></head>locksmithMetal Workers98r
<ab><pro>Leadsmiths</pro> say that making a <al>lizard</al> die in theleadsmithMetal Workers98r
<m>leaded</m> or vitrified. I believe that <pro>glassmakers</pro> couldglass makerGlass Workers99r
& some & the <pro>common people</pro> put incommon peopleCommon People100v
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkaliglass makerGlass Workers100v
<pro>glassmakers</pro>’ or <pro>apothecaries</pro>’. But <m>alkaliapothecaryAlchemists100v
In this way, the <pro>common people</pro> make <m>emeralds</m> & cast incommon peopleCommon People100v
<pro>gunpowder maker</pro> who had almost completely burnt himselfgunpowder makerGun Workers103r
<head><pro>Goldsmith</pro></head>goldsmithMetal Workers104v
<head><pro>Painter</pro></head>painterPainters105r
<head><pro>Fountain maker</pro></head>fountain makerStone Workers105v
water</env>, which <pro><al>crayfish</al> catchers</pro>crayfish catcheranimal workers107r
them</pro> did not take this into account, & assured me that theremolderMolders110r
stick which <pro>pastry makers</pro></tl> use, which should be a littlepastry makerFood Workers112v
water</m> that <pro>women</pro> use to make their <m>starch</m>. ForwomenCommon People113v
<m>Sublimate</m> is commonly employed by <pro>goldsmiths</pro> forgoldsmithMetal Workers120r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>use</del> <add>use</add> to workgoldsmithMetal Workers120v
The <m>sand with which <pro>goldsmiths</pro> buff <m>enamels</m> or thegoldsmithMetal Workers121r
white one that <pro>glassmakers</pro> use</m>, & <m>any lean sand that doesglass makerGlass Workers121r
the <pro>peasants</pro> eat their soup</ms></tl>, of the aforesaidpeasantCommon People121v
waste which <pro>founders</pro> use to cast their <wp>cannons</wp></m>, or anyfounderMetal Workers121v
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> who have knowledge of this substance sell agoldsmithMetal Workers123r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro>, & especially to <pro>those who work in plategoldsmithMetal Workers123r
furnace</tl>. So that when <pro>goldsmiths</pro> want to cast somegoldsmithMetal Workers124v
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or fromworkersMetal Workers125r
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> do not put any in, nevertheless it is good, and I havegoldsmithMetal Workers128v
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quickgoldsmithMetal Workers128v
color you want. This is the <m>wax</m> <pro>goldsmiths</pro> use forgoldsmithMetal Workers133r
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths</pro> scrape <m>gold leaf</m> with the <tl>brim of a burin</tl>,goldsmithMetal Workers136r
you cast it. <pro>Casters</pro> do not usually take that <m>very yellowcasterMolders136v
work of the <pro>founder</pro>, for one only needs a <env><po>spring</po> offounderMetal Workers137r
<ab>When <pro>goldsmiths</pro> have something to <m>solder</m> promptlygoldsmithMetal Workers138v
<head><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl></head>molderMolders143r
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it,goldsmithMetal Workers149r
<ab><pro>Goldsmiths who work in large wares and plate</pro> get whatevergoldsmithMetal Workers149v
the cast. <pn><pro>Maistre</pro> Alexandre</pn><comment rid=“c_151r_02”/> says that he has never gone wrongmolderMolders151r
Some <pro>goldsmiths</pro> assay it on <m>gold, thinly beatengoldsmithMetal Workers157r
<ab>As <pro>small peddlers</pro> lay open small wares in order to buypeddlerCommon People162r
secrets from my benevolent <pro>readers</pro>.<hr/></ab>Common People162r
<head><pro>Perfumer</pro></head>perfumerPerfumer163r
If something is omitted: the <pro>harvester</pro> is not reproached forharvesterFood Workers166r
<ab>If any <pro>artisans</pro> complainartisanCommon People166r

Appendix 4: Descriptions of profession categories

Profession CategoryDescription
Metal WorkersThose whose work primarily involves metal, such as goldsmiths and founders
PaintersPainters
Glass WorkersThose whose work primarily involves glass, directly referenced to as glass workers in the manuscript
Common PeopleIn reference to a daily life practice not specially tied to a profession, such as something peasants like to eat
Stone WorkersThose whose work primarily involves stone, such as stone cutters
Gun MakersThose involved in any part of the gun making process
MoldersMolders
Wood WorkersThose whose work primarily involves wood, such as joiners
MerchantsMerchants
Paper MakersThose whose work primarily involves paper, such as scribes and printers
Animal WorkersThose whose work primarily involves animals, such as shearers
Textile WorkersThose whose work primarily involves textiles, such as shoe makers
AlchemistsThose specially referenced to as alchemists as well as apothecary workers
Plant WorkersThose whose work primarily involves plants, such as gardeners
Food MakersThose involved in making food, such as bakers
Field WorkersThose whose work is primarily tied to fields, such as plowman and harvesters
Clock MakersThose involved in any part of the clock making process, specifically referenced to as clock makers
PottersPotters
PerfumersPerfumers

Appendix 5: Instances of oral transmission of knowledge using the place tag

DescriptionfolioLabelCategory
the <pl>Faubourg Saint-Germain</pl>,<comment rid=“c_001r_76”/> knows of the001rFaubourg Saint-GermainFrance
<pa><fr><oc>pomole</oc></fr></pa><comment rid=“c_009r_01”/> in <pl>Gascony</pl> or009rGasconyFrance
<pa><fr>baillard</fr></pa> in <pl>France</pl>,<comment rid=“c_009r_02”/> makes the earth shake seven <tmp>years</tmp> later,009rFranceFrance
<ab>It is made in <pl>Lyon</pl> from the <m>juice of weld</m> &010rlyonFrance
who make it in <pl>Germany</pl> compound it like <m>enamel</m>, in large011rGermanyGermany
one from the region of <pl>Albi</pl> is whiter. It must be cooked with a012ralbiFrance
<pl>Montauban</pl> make, it is necessary to snuff it out often, for016vmontaubanFrance
<ab><m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is smoother & more even than020rlorraineFrance
<m>drugs</m> that the <pro>glassworkers</pro> put on. <m>Glass from <pl>Lorraine</pl></m> is sold by the <ms>bundle</ms><comment rid=“c_020r_04”/> & each020rlorraineFrance
<pl>Toulouse</pl> named Cardaillac<comment rid=“c_020v_02”/> as one of the most beautiful in020vtoulouseFrance
<pl>France</pl>, all the more since it weighs two hundred and fifty020vFranceFrance
Know the magazines of <pl>France</pl> for the024vFranceFrance
is 8 <ms><pl>Montpellier</pl> <fr>pans</fr></ms></head>027vmontpellierFrance
jumble to cheat on the weight. The <m>tin from <pl>England</pl></m> is so hard that the <pro>miners</pro> put in028vEnglandEngland
makes ceiling ornaments with it in <pl>Rome</pl>. One can make bed029rromeItaly
<ab>As soon as the colors of panels are well dried, the <pl>Flemish</pl>032rflemishFlanders
<ab>They make two kinds of them in <pl>Toulouse</pl>, one to hang on the032vtoulouseFrance
why <m>solder</m> is made with it. In <pl>Germany</pl> they make very032vGermanyGermany
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl>036vlorraineFrance
<ab>One says that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> & in <pl>Flanders</pl>036vFlandersFlanders
It is made in the same way in <pl>England</pl> more beautifully.036vEnglandEngland
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with036vrouenFrance
Near <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, <m>plate glass</m> is made with036vrouenFrance
salt</m></tl> over it, which an <pl>Englishman</pl> called037venglishEngland
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with044vcoustanceFrance
<ab>They are made at <pl>Coustance</pl> in <pl>Normandy</pl> with044vcoustanceFrance
xxx <ms><cn>sous</cn></ms>. They bring them to <pl>Toulouse</pl> to044vtoulouseFrance
transport them afterward to <pl>Spain</pl>, and take <m>silk tammy</m>044vSpainSpain
<ab>Those from <pl>Bayonne</pl>, which seem to be made of047rbayonneFrance
reduce to a mass. The <pl>Germans</pl> make their <tl>files</tl> from050vgermansGermany
<head>The work done in <pl>Algiers</pl></head>052ralgiersAlgeria
& make more <m>silk</m>. In <pl>Spain</pl>, from one <ms>ounce</ms> of053vSpainSpain
The <pl>Italians</pl> soften by hatching with a large flattened056vitaliansItaly
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> do not use any whites for flesh colors in057vflemishFlanders
well. <comment rid=“c_059r_01”/>The <pl>Italians</pl> commonly make three shadows, the first one,059ritaliansItaly
easily. <pl>Flemish</pl> <pro>painters</pro> have such panels060rflemishFlanders
<head>Work of the <pl>Flemish</pl></head>060vflemishFlanders
<head><tl>Frames</tl><comment rid=“c_061v_02”/> of the <pl>Germans</pl> </head>061vgermansGermany
<ab><pl>Germans</pl> who work in miniature make <tl>frames</tl> not of061vgermansGermany
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> use <m>lead from <pl>Flanders</pl></m> because063rgermansGermany
<ab><pl>German</pl> <pro>painters</pro> make their shadows on flesh063rgermansGermany
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> & those who paint panels by the dozen only066rflemishFlanders
a little thick, but in <pl>France</pl><lb/>066rFranceFrance
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> give a layer of <m>distemper glue</m>066rflemishFlanders
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make boxes <del><fr>p</fr></del> covered with painted067rgermansGermany
The <pl>Toulouse</pl> <pro>molder</pro> reheats it strongly then grinds069rtoulouseFrance
The <pl>English</pl>, when they feel a cold coming on, mull <m>wine</m> in this071renglishEngland
The common <pl>English</pl> put <m>sugar</m> in <m>wine</m> to affect071renglishEngland
<ab>The <pl>Irish</pl> do not drink any <m>wine</m> because they convert071ririshIreland
<ab>In a certain region of <pl>England</pl>, the <al>sheep</al> that071vEnglandEngland
<ab>In <pl>Ireland</pl>, there are none, & if one touches them071vIrelandIreland
<pro>rich</pro> people of <pl>England</pl> make their ceilings from this071vEnglandEngland
<ab render=“wide”>The <pl>Germans</pl> cast their <m>leads</m> very thinly, because it seems072vgermansGermany
<pl>Fosseret</pl><comment rid=“c_081r_02”/> & in another place081rfosseretFrance
called <pl>Ox</pl>.<comment rid=“c_081r_03”/></ab>081roxFrance
<ab>The <pl>Flemish</pl> reglue their <tl><m>earthen</m> pots</tl> with085rflemishFlanders
<ab><pro>Molders</pro> from <pl>Foix</pl> who cast their <del><fr>ur</fr></del><comment rid=“c_090r_01”/>090rfoixFrance
<ab>In <pl>Italy</pl>, those who are in the colder regions, like090vItalyItaly
<pl>Lombardy</pl>, make <tl>square wooden cases</tl>, a little larger at090vlombardyItaly
The <pl>Italians</pl> scarcely varnish their paintings because they layer097vitaliansItaly
<ab>The <pl>Germans</pl> make <m>minium</m> boil well in101vgermansGermany
flesh color. And as for the ground, they make it with <m><fr>azur d’<pl>Acre</pl></fr></m>102vcolchisAlgeria
<ab>The <pl>English</pl>, who caress their d<al>ogs</al> a lot for103renglishEngland
that the <pl>Italians</pl> put in, because one often has to put the109ritaliansItaly
<ab>The <pro>workers</pro> from <pl>Damascus</pl> or from125rdamascussyria
<pl>Hungary</pl>, neighbors to the <pl>Turks</pl>, separate, in the125rhungaryhungary
<pl>Germans</pl>, and that such an alloy readily makes a film128vgermansGermany
<pro>goldsmiths</pro> <del>from <pl>France</pl></del> are usually quick128vFranceFrance
have seen an excellent <pl>German</pl> working thus. Having in my128vgermanGermany
the cast. Some say that <m><pl>German</pl> tokens</m> <del>are</del>136vgermanGermany
<pro>Goldsmiths</pro> from <pl>Germany</pl> wanted to refine it,149rGermanyGermany
<m>white salt</m>. <pl>Germans</pl> make statues for their <env>fountains</env>159vgermansGermany
<ab>In <pl>Spain</pl>, one lays them bare at the roots <ms><tmp>during162vSpainSpain
others from <pl>Tyana</pl> learned by their travels the disciplines of which they called themselves <pro>inventors</pro>166rtyanaTurkey

  1. “BnF Ms. Fr. 640 – Making and Knowing Project,” Accessed December 20, 2021, https://www.makingandknowing.org/bnf-ms-fr-640/↩︎

  2. Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 3. ↩︎

  3. Vansina, Oral Tradition as History, 3. ↩︎

  4. U. Kalpagam, “Oral History: Reconstructing Women’s Role.” Economic and Political Weekly 21, no. 38/39 (1986): 1683. ↩︎

  5. Pertti Anttonen, Cecilia af Forselles, and Kirsti Salmi-Niklander, eds. Oral Tradition and Book Culture. Studia Fennica, Folkloristica 24. (Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society), 2018), 7-8. ↩︎

  6. Celine Camps and Margot Lyautey, “Ma<r>king and Knowing: Encoding BnF Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/CJHD-WH90↩︎

  7. Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript: Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848↩︎

  8. Aaron J. Gurevich and Ann Shukman. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘Peasant Visions’ of the Late Twelfth-Early Thirteenth Centuries.” New Literary History 16, no. 1 (1984): 51–66. https://doi.org/10.2307/468775↩︎

  9. William Beik, A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 21. ↩︎

  10. “The Food of Shakespeare’s World,” Folger Shakespeare Library, last modified July 26, 2016. [https://www.folger.edu/shakespeare-unlimited/food-wendy-wall]. ↩︎

  11. Xiaomeng Liu, “Collecting Cures in an Artisanal Manuscript:Practical Therapeutics and Disease in Ms. Fr. 640,” 2020, https://doi.org/10.7916/WQ5P-P848↩︎

  12. Joslyn DeVinney, “Smoke as Medicine,” 2016, https://www.doi.org/10.7916/kfja-0v86↩︎

  13. Sofia Gans, “Circulation of Knowledge in Europe,” 2015, https://doi.org/10.7916/6ZZW-S813↩︎